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DESIGNED  AS  A  KEADING  BOOK 


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rONTAIMNG   THE   MOST  ISfrORTAST  IKFORMATION  OK 


PRACTICAL  AGRICULTURE, 


rXAL,  AXP  SELECTED  FROM  THE  BEST  FNCLISI' 
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BY  J.  ORVZZ.XA  TAiriLOZL 


ALBANY: 

'OBLiSBEIi  AT  THE   COMMON   ^CHOOL  P£P03IT0RT. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MASSACHUSETTS 
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FARMERS'  SCHOOL  BOOK, 

This  book  should  be  read  in  common  schools 
in  the  place  of  the  "  English  Reader,"  "  Colum- 
bian Orator,"  and  other  similar  works.  By 
reading  the  Fanners'  School  Book,  the  children 
will  learn  the  business  of  practical  life ;  and  this 
ia  much  more  desirable  than  to  read  the  English 
Reader,  a  book  they  seldom  understand,  and  one 
they  can  put  to  no  practical  use. 


From  the  steam  presses  of 
Packard  &,  Van  Benthuysen. 


THE 


FARMERS'   SCHOOL    BOOK.     ^ 

PREPARED    AND    PUBLISHED    BY 
J.   ORVILLE   TAYLOR, 

AUTHOR   OF    THE    "DISTRICT    SCHOOL,"  &C. 


THIS    WORK   CONTAINS    THE    MOST     IMPORTANT    INFORMA- 
TION   ON    AGRICULTURE. 


ALBANY: 

PUBLISHED    AT   THE    "COMMON    SCHOOL    DEPOSITORY," 

NO.  71    STATE-STREBT. 

1837. 


[Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1837,  by 

J.  Orville  Taylor, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Northern  District  of  New-York] 


C  O  N  TENTS. 


Preface 9 

Introductjon 11 

CHAPTER  I. 
Chyniistiy. — General  Principles 19 

CHAPTER  II. 
Caloric 23 

CHAPTER  HI. 
Oxygen 32 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Nitrogen 36 

CHAPTER  V. 
Atmosphere 37 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Carbon. — Carbonic  Acid 40 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Light.— Electricity 44 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Hydrogen 46 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Water 49 

CHAPTER  X. 

The  Earths M 


VI  CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER  XI. 

How  Tillable  Lands  are  made 66 

CHAPTER  XH. 
Composition  of  Arable  Lands 58' 

CHAPTER  XIH. 
Vegetable  Nutriment 60 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Properties  of  Mixed  Earths,  and  their  Cultivation    69 

CHAPTER  XV. 
•^  •^llfl'he  Nature  of  Manures. — Varieties     ....     65 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  Nature  of  Manures— continued     ....     68 

CHAPTER  XVIL 

Stimulating   Manures — Lime,   Plaster,   Ashes, 
and  Marl 71 

CHAPTER  XVIIl. 
Improvement  of  the  &oil 77 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Succession  of  Crops 81 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Grasses 85 

CHAPTER  XXL 

Grasses — continued 91 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
Hemp 98 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
Hops       ,     .     ,     , 106 


CONTENTS.  TU 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 
Rutabaga 114 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
^sture 119 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
The  Culture  of  Silk 126 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
History  of  Silk 128 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
Silk — continued 133 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 
Sugar  made  from  Beets 139 

CHAPTER  XXX. 
Beet  Sugar — continued 146 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 
Best  Breeds  of  Cattle 151 

CHAPTER  XXXIl. 

The  different  Breeds  of  Neat  Cattle  compared  .  155 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
On  Buying  and  Stocking  a  Farm  with  Cattle     .  157 

CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

The  Cow. — Raising  Calves 161 

CHAPTER  XXXV. 
Working  Oxen 166 

CHAPTER  XXXVl. 
Pasturing  Cattle 169 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
Soiling  Cattle 173 


VUl  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

Slallfeeding  Beef  Cattle ^177 

CHAPTKR  XXXIX. 
Milch  Kine 


% 


CHAPTER  XL. 

The  Pasture  and  other  Food  best  for  Cows,  as 
it  regards  their  Milk 182 

CHAPTER  XLI. 

The  Management  of  Milk  and  Cream.— Making 
and  Preserving  Butter 185 

CHAPTER  XLII. 
Making  and  Preserving  Cheese 192 

CHAPTER  XLIH. 
Swine 196 

CHAPTER  XUV. 

Diseases  of  Cattle 199 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

Diseases  oeculiar  to  Oxen,  Cows,  and  Calves   .  207 

CHAPTER  XLVI. 

Diseases  of  Horses 209 

CHAPTER  XLVII. 
'         Sheep 314 

CHAPTER  XLVIII. 
Sheep — continued     , 219 

CHAPTER  XLIX. 
The  Farmyard 223 

CHAPTER  L. 

The  Farmyard— coniinvied 828 


PREFACE. 


Children  may  read  and  study  in  the  school- 
room what  they  will  practice  when  they  become 
men.  They  now  read  the  "  English  Reader,"  or 
some  other  "collection"  that  they  do  not  under- 
stand, or  feel  any  interest  in ;  and  which,  the 
worst  of  all,  never  gives  them  one  useful  idea  for 
the  practical  business  of  life. 

This  little  work  has  been  published  to  take  the 
place  of  such  useless,  unintelligible  reading.  Its 
object  is  to  give  children,  while  they  are  receiv- 
ing their  school  education,  a  scientific,  practical 
knowledge  of  the  labours  of  manhood.  To  the 
Young  Farmer  the  work  is  invaluable,  and  it  will 
seize  the  feelings  and  get  the  attention  of  every 
child  that  is  learning  to  read.  The  improvement 
of  our  schools,  and  the  interests  of  Agriculture, 
have  long  been  calling  for  such  a  work.  It  has 
now  appeared,  full  of  the  most  useful  information, 
yet  in  a  small,  cheap  form.  The  schools  may 
obtain  it  without  delay. 

The  introduction,  and  the  part  which  relates  to 
Chymistry,  together  with  a  portion  of  the  chapters 


X  PREFACE. 

on  Cattle  and  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  Soil, 
it  was  necessary  for  me  to  write.  I  have  been 
greatly  assisted  on  the  subject  of  Sheep  Hus- 
bandry by  Judge  Buel's  invaluable  periodical,  the 
"  Cultivator."  That  part  which  relates  to  the 
manufacture  of  Sugar  from  the  Beet  is  taken  from 
Pedder's  Report — the  best  source  of  information 
we  have.  The  chapter  on  Hemp  was  written  by 
the  Honourable  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky.  Much 
assistance  has  also  been  obtained  from  many  of 
the  first  writers  of  the  day  on  Agriculture,  and 
particularly  from  an  able  English  work,  called 
the  "  Complete  Grazier." 

The  work  is  emphatically  a  choice  collection  of 
the  most  important  things  which  our  best  writers 
have  said  on  the  science  and  practice  of  Agricul- 
ture. A  concise  manual  for  farmers  while  en- 
gaged in  their  labours,  and  a  large  amount  of  the 
most  useful  information  for  children  to  read  over 
and  over  again  in  their  schools. 


INTRODUCTION. 


1.  The  King  of  Sparta  being  asked  "what 
things  he  thought  most  proper  for  boys  to  learn," 
answered,  *'  Those  things  which  they  expect  to  do 
when  they  are  men."  The  young  farmer  has  hot 
taken  this  advice.  He  has  learned  nothing  of  his 
profession,  while  receiving  his  education.  The 
study  of  Agriculture  has  not  even  been  pursued  in 
the  district  schools ! 

2.  When  a  boy  wishes  to  become  a  carpenter,  or 
a  shoemaker,  or  a  blacksmith,  he  considers  it  ne- 
cessary to  study  his  business  for  seven  or  eight 
years.  And  if  he  chooses  one  of  the  professions — 
law,  physic,  or  divinity — he  devotes  ten  or  twelve 
years  to  the  study  of  those  things  which  he  expects 
to  do  when  he  becomes  a  man.  If  he  desires  to 
be  a  merchant,  the  different  markets,  products,  and 
the  wants  of  the  people,  the  facilities  of  commerce, 
the  value  of  exchanges,  the  supply  and  demand  of 
articles,  engross  his  attention,  and  all  the  powers 
of  his  mind,  for  months  and  years. 

3.  But  knowledge  is  more  important,  more  valu- 
able to  the  farmer,  than  to  the  tradesman,  or  to  the 
professional  man.  The  farmer  should  understand 
Chymistry,  that  he  may  know  and  change  the  na- 
ture of  the  soils,  that  he  may  rightly  prepare  the 


Ml  INTRODUCTION. 

best  manures,  and  wisely  mix  the  different  earths 
— and,  also,  that  he  may  understand  the  way  in 
which  the  plants  take  in  their  nourishment  from 
the  air  and  earth,  and  be  prepared  to  assist  them 
in  this  nice  operation. 

4.  He  should  know  something  of  GEOLOok',  that 
he  may  see  the  nature  of  the  different  soils,  which 
are  mostly  made  of  pulverized  rocks.  By  knowing 
the  nature  and  location  of  the  rocks  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, he  can  form  a  very  correct  opinion  of 
the  nature  and  properties  of  the  soil,  and  judge 
how  far  the  heavy  rains  or  the  droughts  will  affect 
the  crops. 

5.  Mineralogy  should  be  studied  to  some  ex- 
tent. Plaster,  lime,  marl,  &c.  are  discovered  by 
means  of  this  science.  The  properties  of  these 
stimulating  manures,  so  valuable  to  the  farmers, 
would  never  have  been  known  or  applied,  if  the 
study  of  mineralogy  had  been  neglected.  There 
are  beds  of  plaster,  marl,  and  lime,  in  almost  every 
section  of  our  country  ;  and  if  the  farmers  would 
give  a  little  attention  to  this  simple  and  delightful 
part  of  natural  science,  mines  of  wealth  would 
open  on  many  a  barren  corner  of  the  farm. 

6.  Manures  are  now  but  little  studied  or  under- 
stood. They  are  so  made,  or  so  applied,  that  but 
little  good,  compared  to  what  they  might  do,  is  de- 
rived from  them.  The  moisture  of  the  barnyard 
is  permitted  to  soak  into  the  earth,  or  to  run  off  to 
uncultivated  portions  of  the  farm.  Fermentation 
is  either  checked  too  soon,  or  goes  much  too  far. 
And  the  manure  is  frequently  left  in  the  yard  till 
all  the  nutritive  gases  have  evaporated  and  become 
lost  in  the  air. 


INTRODLCTION.  Xll! 

7.  Long,  warm  maniirefc:,  which  should  be  put  on 
hard,  cold  soils,  are  often  put  on  soils  that  are  open 
and  warm.  Rotten,  cold  manures,  containing  no- 
thing but  a  few  salts,  which  should  be  used  only  on 
warm,  light  soils,  are  mixed  Avith  clayey,  heavy 
lands  :  and  a  crop  that  requires  a  certain  manure, 
is  frequently  dressed  with  one  directly  opposite  in 
its  character.  There  is  not  much  knowledge  of 
manures,  and  frequently  less  judgment  in  their  ap- 
plication. 

8.  The  rank  weeds  that  grow  under  the  fences, 
on  the  sides  of  the  road,  and  among  the  crops  in 
the  field,  together  with  the  potato  tops,  might  be 
gathered  and  thrown  into  heaps  to  ferment,  and 
thus  furnish  to  the  farmer  yearly  a  large  quantity 
of  the  most  valuable  manure.  Manure  is  the  life 
of  the  farm,  and  the  agriculturist  should  make 
all  he  can,  and  know  how  to  apply  it  to  the  best 
purposes. 

9.  The  Grasses  are  a  very  important  study. 
Only  two  or  three  of  these,  such  as  timothy  and 
clover,  are  generally  cultivated.  That  there  arc 
twenty  or  thirty  different  kinds  well  adapted  to  our 
soil,  and  that  some  of  these  are  much  larger  and 
quicker  in  their  grow^th,  is  known  only  to  a  few. 
The  common  grass  is  raised  from  year  to  year 
without  seeking  for  anything  better.  But  this  is 
not  considered  profitahle  farming. 

10.  The  different  Grains  are  not  always  selected 
for  their  appropriate  soils.  Each  grain  has  its  own 
particular  food,  and  the  soil  that  is  rich  in  nutriment 
for  one  kind  may  have  nothing  nourishing  for 
another.  It  requires  long  observation,  and  much 
knowledoe  of  the  distinct  individual  food  of  the 


XiV  I  INTRODUCTION. 

grain  wc  wish  to  raise,  and  of  the  existing  proper- 
lies  of  the  soil  we  cuhivate,  to  make  a  wise  adapt- 
ation of  grains  to  soils.  A  rotation  of  crops  is 
always  necessary,  a«d  much  study  is  required  to 
know  the  best  rotation. 

11.  How  often  do  farmers  sow  foul,  imperfect 
seed !  They  not  only  show  indifference  to  the 
most  profitable  grains,  but  they  not  unfrequently, 
because  the  trouble  is  somewhat  less,  sow  seed  of 
inferior  growth,  or  that  which  is  mixed  with  the 
seed  of  the  most  destructive  and  troublesome  weeds. 
By  using  such  seed,  the  farm  soon  becomes  unfit 
for  cultivation.  Farmers  also  neglect  to  destroy 
the  first  growth  of  any  foul  weed.  They  permit 
it  to  go  to  seed,  to  spread  its  roots,  and  finally  to 
take  full  possession  of  the  soil,  when  one  hour's 
work  at  first  would  save  the  farm. 

12.  The  best  breeds  of  Cattle  are  not  always 
selected.  Although  it  costs  as  much  to  keep  a 
small,  light,  bony  breed  of  cattle,  as  it  does  to  feed 
a  square,  meaty,  heavy  breed,  yet  most  farmers 
still  continue  to  raise  the  old,  unprofitable  stock, 
and  appear  indifierent  to  the  advantages  of  the  bet- 
ter breeds  that  haA'^e  been  introduced  by  observing, 
enterprising  men.  Farmers  may  receive  double 
the  profits  from  their  cows  and  beef  cattle,  if  they 
will  only  obtain  the  better,  improved  breeds. 

1 3.  Sheep,  if  there  is  a  good  selection  and  prop- 
er care,  may  be  made  very  profitable  to  the  far- 
mer. But  their  nature  is  so  imperfectly  understood , 
and  their  favourite,  healthy  food  so  seldom  known, 
or  procured,  that  their  profits  are  greatly  diminished 
by  the  yearly  loss  of  the  flock  by  death.  It  is  sur- 
prising that  men  will  continue  to  lose  their  sheep 


IM'RODUCriON.  XV 

from  year  to  year,  without  paying  any  allention  to 
their  diseases  and  the  remedies.  The  most  profit- 
able breed  is  not  always  procured.  Habit  and  in- 
dolence still,  in  many  places,  continue  to  raise  the 
English  sheep,  with  its  thin,  long,  coarse  wool, 
and  its  large  consuming  carcass. 

14.  Swine,  perhaps,  receive  the  least  of  our 
attention.  The  long  snout,  the  sharp  back,  the 
stilted  bony  legs,  the  maw  that  is  always  devour- 
ing, yet  always  squealing  for  more,  are  what  we 
see  in  almost  every  part  of  the  country.  The 
short  nose,  the  fat  cheek,  the  broad  back,  and  the 
small  short  leg,  or  in  one  word  the  Berkshire 
Hog,  we  seldom  meet  with.  Farmers  may  save 
half  their  corn  and  have  double  the  quantity  of 
pork,  if  they  will  only  take  a  little  pains  in  better- 
ing the  breed  of  their  hogs. 

15.  Roots,  such  as  the  parsnip,  the  carrot,  and  the 
rutabaga,  should  be  raised  for  his  cattle  by  every 
farmer.  One  acre  of  roots  will  give  as  much  food 
as  three  acres  of  grass.  The  cattle  likewise  are 
kept  in  a  much  better  condition  on  roots  than  on 
hay  exclusively.  By  a  little  labour  in  raising 
roots  the  farmer  may  at  least  double  the  profits 
from  his  stock.  It  is  unaccountable  that  turnips, 
carrots,  &c.,  are  not  more  generally  cultivated  for 
cattle ! 

16.  The  Beet  Sugar  is  soon  to  become  one  of 
the  most  common  and  most  profitable  products  of 
the  farm.  Every  farmer  can  make  his  own  sugar 
from  the  beet  as  easily  as  he  can  make  cider  from 
the  apple.  The  process  of  raising  the  beet  and 
that  of  making  the  sugar  are  described  in  this  book. 
That  which  relates  to  this  subject  is  taken  from 


XVI  INTRODUCTION. 

"  Pedder's  Report,"  the  latest  and  most  authentic 
source  of  information  on  this  interesting  subject. 

17.  Silk  is  also  becoming  one  of  our  articles  of 
produce.  I'he  raising  of  the  silkworm  and  the 
mulberry  tree,  and  the  manufacture  of  the  raw  silk, 
are  briefly  but  fully  discussed  in  this  work.  The 
necessary  information  on  this  subject  is  here  given 
in  a  small  space.  Farmers  should  plant  the  mul- 
berry seed  without  delay.  The  culture  of  silk  is 
simple  and  very  profitable. 

18.  Hemp  is  also  a  profitable  crop  for  farmers. 
I  have  obtained  for  this  work  the  best  treatise  on 
the  growth  and  manufacture  of  hemp  that  has  yet 
been  published.  It  is  from  the  pen  of  the  Honour- 
able Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky.  He  has  cultivated 
this  crop  largely,  and  speaks  after  long  and  close 
observation.  The  culture  of  hemp  may  be  made 
profitable  in  this  state.  The  culture  of  Hop.«:  is 
also  very  ably  and  freely  described. 

19.  The  best  Architecture  of  farmhouses, 
of  barns  and  other  outhouses,  should  also  be  stud- 
ied by  the  young  agriculturist.  Convenience, 
security,  and  protection  of  the  stock,  should  be 
studied  in  the  location  and  structure  of  the  farm 
buildings.  We  often  see  the  fences  around  the 
barn  and  the  house  thrown  down  by  the  cattle, 
and  the  whole  stock  allowed  to  roam  in  every  di- 
rection, through  the  garden  and  over  the  grain 
and  the  meadows,  during  the  whole  feeding  time 
of  fall  and  spring. 

20.  And  we  often  see  the  hog  pen  between  the 
road  and  the  house,  and  the  bam  on  the  other  side 
of  the  road  directly  opposite  to  the  house.  These 
objects  should  be  placed  in  tlic  field  directly  back 


INTRODUCTION.  XVII 

of  the  dwelling.  Why  it  is  that  some  farmers  will 
have  the  hog  pen  and  the  barnyard  immediately 
under  the  windows  and  door  of  their  dwelling  I 
could  never  imagine  !  The  cattle  are  permitted  to 
run  around  the  house,  and  in  the  dooryard,  and 
bite  off  and  tread  down  the  young  trees,  and  the 
pigs  are  permitted  to  trouble  the  kitchen  door,  and 
to  upset  the  swill  barrel,  and  to  root  up  the  gar- 
den !  But  I  have  never  been  able  to  teli  why  this 
was  so. 

21.  There  is  much  to  learn  and  much  to  cor- 
rect. No  other  man  should  be  so  observing — so 
familiar  with  nature,  in  all  her  silent  and  wonder- 
ful operations — so  well  acquainted  with  every  de- 
partment of  natural  science,  as  the  Farmer.  Na- 
ture and  the  Farmer  work  together — for  the 
same  object — in  the  same  workhouse — and  with 
the  same  tools  and  materials.  Nature  is  strug- 
gling with  all  her  great  energies  to  feed  and  bless 
the  human  race ;  and  to  aid  her  is  the  work  of 
the  farmer.  But  he  will  be  a  poor  help,  unless 
he  understands  her  mode  of  operation. 

22.  At  present  how  deficient  is  the  farmer's  ed- 
ucation !  He  does  not  learn  that  which  makes 
his  profession  profitable  and  honourable  !  Farm- 
ing, in  too  many  instances,  is  merely  BLIND  IM- 
ITATION ! — thoughtless,  unproductive  toil — the 
slavish  delving  of  the  hands,  without  the  delights 
or  the  aid  of  the  intellect !  This  must  be  so 
when  there  is  no  science  to  guide  ;  when,  in  their 
only  education,  the  children  learn  nothing  of  their 
profession  !  Then  let  that  be  taught  in  the  com- 
mon school,  which  will  make  farming  delightful, 
hoiwurahlc,  and  profitable. 


,/    /      ,^    ..ctj   (^^ 


L 


THE 


FARMERS'    SCHOOL    BOOK, 


CHAPTER  I. 

CHYMISTRY. GENERAL    PRINCIPLES. 

1.  Chymistry  is  the  science  which  makes  us 
acquainted  with  the  elementary  parts  of  bodies  ; 
and,  also,  with  the  manner  in  which  these  parts 
act  upon  each  other.  The  object  of  chymistry, 
then,  is  to  find  out  the  elementary  parts  of  sub- 
stances or  bodies — the  nature  of  these  constitu- 
ent parts — the  laws  which  unite  and  separate 
them,  and  the  results  of  this  union  and  separa- 
tion. 

2.  Natural  philosophy  speaks  of  the  size,  weight, 
hardness,  or  softness  of  a  body,  of  a  loaf  of  bread 
for  example,  while  chymistry  finds  out  the  ingre- 
dients in  it — flour,  water,  salt,  and  yeast,  which 
make  the  loaf. 

3.  Natural  philosophy  says  that  matter,  among 
several  other  qualities,  has  extension,  which  means 
length,  breadth,  and  thickness  ;  imp cnetr ability, 
which  means,  that  no  two  particles  can  be  in  the 
same  space  at  one  time  ;  and  divisibility^  mean- 
ing, that  every  piece  of  matter  can  he  divided  into 


20         CHYMISTRY. GENERAL    PRINCIPLES. 

several  smaller  pieces.  Chymistry  shows  what 
all  bodies  are  made  of,  and  how  the  elementary 
parts  which  compose  them  are  put  together. 

4.  Substance,  or  body,  means  any  kind  of  mat- 
ter, solid,  fluid,  or  aeriform — anything  we  can  see, 
taste,  touch,  or  smell.  A  stone  is  a  solid  body,  so 
is  a  piece  of  wood  ;  water  is  a  fluid  body,  and  the 
air,  vapours,  and  gases  are  aeriform  bodies. 

5.  Substances  are  either  simple  or  compound. 
A  simple  substance  is  one  that  cannot  be  reduced 
into  anything  more  simple.  There  are  fifty-three 
simple  substances  ;  only  thirty-seven  of  them  are 
used  in  the  arts,  or  in  agriculture. 

6.  A  compound  substance  is  one  composed  of 
two  or  more  simple  bodies.  Water  is  a  compound 
body,  being  composed  of  the  two  simple  substan- 
ces, oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Almost  all  the  objects 
we  see  are  composed  of  several  substances. 

7.  A  compound  body  can  be  separated  into  its 
simple  elements.  Air  is  a  compound  body,  and 
can  be  separated  into  oxygen  and  nitrogen — the 
two  simple  substances  which  compose  it.  Again, 
put  oxvgen  and  hydrogen  together,  and  water  is 
formed — a  compound  body  being  made  out  of  these 
two  simple  ones. 

8.  There  is  a  tendency  in  particles  and  masses 
of  matter  to  approach  each  other.  This  is  called 
attraction.  It  acts  upon  matter  at  great  distances. 
The  sun  attracts  the  earth,  the  earth  attracts  the 
moon ;  and  if  we  throw  a  stone  into  the  air,  the 
earth  has  such  an  attraction  on  thp  stone  as  to 
draw  it  down  again  to  the  ground.  When  any- 
thing falls,  it  is  drawn  to  the  earth  by  a  force  whicli 
we  call  the  attraction  of  gravitation. 


CHYMISTRY. GENERAL    PRINCIPLES.  21 

9.  Particles  of  matter  have  another  tendency 
to  approach  each  other,  called  the  attraction  of 
cohesion.  While  gravitation  acts  upon  bodies  at 
great  distances,  cohesion  acts  only  upon  particles 
at  insensible  distances.  Cohesion  brings  particles 
of  matter  of  the  same  kind  into  seeming  contact, 
and  keeps  them  in  that  situation. 

10.  On  some  particles  it  acts  with  great  force, 
and  on  others  the  action,  if  any,  is  not  percepti- 
ble. On  solids  its  force  is  intense  ;  on  liquids  the 
force  is  weaker,  and  on  the  particles  of  air,  and 
the  gases,  it  apparently  has  no  action.  There  is 
considerable  cohesion  in  ice,  less  when  changed 
into  a  liquid,  and  not  any  when  changed  into  a 
vapour. 

11.  Take  two  bullets;  cut  a  piece  from  each, 
so  as  to  make  a  flat  surface,  put  them  together  with 
some  pressure,  and  they  will  stick  to  each  other 
with  great  force.  A  piece  of  glass,  when  laid 
flatly  upon  another  piece,  coheres  with  consider- 
able force.  The  cohesion  of  a  stone  is  destroyed 
by  pounding  it  into  a  powder,  and  the  cohesion  of 
a  lump  of  sugar  is  destroyed  by  dropping  it  into 
water — the  water  having  a  stronger  attraction  for 
the  sugar  than  the  particles  of  sugar  have  for  each 
other. 

12.  Heat  destroys  cohesion,  as  when  ice,  or 
wax,  or  lead  is  melted.  It  seems  to  be  an  oppo- 
sing power  to  cohesion.  The  atoms  of  bodies 
V,  ould  come  into  actual  contact,  if  it  were  not  for 
a  force  called  repulsion.  This  force  is  supposed 
to  be  heat,  and  prevents  the  atoms  from  touching 
each  other.  The  blacksmith,  by  infusing  heat  into 
a  piece  of  iron,  destroys,  to  a  degree,  its  cohesion. 


2a         CHYMISTRY. GENERAL    PRINCIPLES. 

thus  rendering  it  soft  and  pliable  for  his  use.  The 
hardness  or  softness  of  a  body  is  in  proportion  to 
its  cohesion. 

13.  When  the  attraction  of  cohesion  is  exerted 
suddenly,  the  particles  unite  indiscriminately,  and 
form  irregular  masses.  But  when  it  resumes  its 
force  more  slowly,  the  particles  assume  a  perpen- 
dicular arrangement,  and  form  masses  of  regular 
figures.  This  is  termed  cryataiization,  and  the 
regular-figured  masses  are  called  crystals. 

14.  Chymical  attraction,  or,  as  it  is  more  gen- 
erally termed,  c//y;wica/  affinity,  IS  exerted  between 
the  particles  of  different  kinds  of  matter.  Put 
water  and  oil  into  a  tumbler  and  the  oil  will  rise 
on  the  top,  not  mixing  with  the  water ;  but  drop 
a  piece  of  pearlash  into  the  tumbler,  and  the  oil, 
water,  and  pearlash  will  immediately  unite  and 
form  soap.  The  reason  is,  that  the  pearlash  has  a 
strong  chymical  affinity  for  both  water  and  oil,  and 
becomes  a  bond  of  union  between  them. 

15.  Besides  the  three  species  of  attraction  that 
have  been  mentioned,  there  are  electric  and  mag- 
netic attraction.  Rub  a  piece  of  sealing  wax  with 
a  cloth,  and  put  it  near  a  feather  or  a  pile  of  fine 
sand,  and  the  feather  or  the  particles  of  sand  will 
jump  to  the  wax  and  stick  to  it.  This  is  electric 
attraction.  By  drawing  the  hand  over  a  cat  in  the 
dark,  sparks  of  fire  are  elicited.  This  is  also 
electric  attraction.  The  needle  is  directed  to  the 
pole  by  magnetic  attraction. 


CALORIC,  28 


CHAPTER  II. 


1.  Caloric  is  a  very  thin,  subtil  fluid.  It  can- 
not be  seen,  and  is  known  only  by  the  sense  of 
touch.  It  is  the  cause  of  all  our  feelings  of  warmth, 
or  heat.  Its  particles  repel  each  other ;  that  is, 
they  have  a  tendency  to  separate  and  fly  ofl".  It 
is  imponderable,  which  means,  it  has  no  weight. 
A  body  is  no  heavier  when  it  is  hot,  or  what  is 
the  same  thing,  full  of  caloric,  than  when  it  is 
cold. 

2.  It  is  found  in  all  substances :  in  ice,  in 
stones,  in  wood,  in  metals,  in  water,  and  in  air. 
Everything  contains  some  caloric.  A  liquid  con- 
tains more  caloric  than  a  solid,  and  the  aeriform 
substances,  such  as  air,  vapour,  and  the  gases,  con- 
tain more  caloric  than  the  liquid  substances.  The 
more  caloric  a  substance  has,  the  less  solid  it  is, 
except  clay  and  a  few  other  bodies. 

3.  The  attraction  of  cohesion  makes  solids. 
Caloric,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  an  opposing 
power  to  cohesion,  and  therefore  makes  liquids. 
Every  solid  substance  on  the  earth  might  be 
changed  into  a  liquid  or  vapour  by  infusing  into  it 
sufficient  caloric.  If  we  lay  a  piece  of  ice  on  the 
stove,  the  caloric  soon  changes  it  into  v/ater,  and 
then  into  vapour. 

4.  Caloric  is  communicated  from  one  body  to 
another.  If  we  put  the  hand  on  a  hot  body,  calo- 
ric passes  from  it  into  the  hand,  and  causes  the 


24  CALORIC. 

feeling  of  warmth  ;  when  we  touch  a  body  colder 
than  the  hand,  the  caloric  goes  from  the  hand  into 
the  body.  Caloric  desires  to  be  in  all  bodies  in 
an  equal  degree,  and  therefore  goes  from  object  to 
object,  when  bodies  are  brought  together.  If  we 
throw  a  hot  ball  into  a  pail  of  water,  the  large 
quantity  of  caloric  in  the  ball  goes  off  immediately 
into  the  water,  and  in  a  short  time  the  water  and 
ball  have  an  equal  temperature. 

5.  Caloric  passes  through  some  bodies  with 
great  rapidity,  while  through  other  bodies  it  passes 
slowly.  It  goes  speedily  through  an  iron  rod,  so 
that  we  cannot  touch  the  hand  within  a  foot  of  the 
heated  end  ;  but  it  goes  so  slowly  through  glass 
that  we  can  take  hold  of  a  glass  rod  within  three 
inches  of  the  melting  end.  Hence,  some  bodies 
are  called  good  conductors  of  heat,  or  of  caloric, 
and  others  bad  conductors.  Iron  is  a  good  con- 
ductor; glass,  stones,  wood,  and  charcoal  are  bad 
conductors. 

6.  If  we  take  a  piece  of  wire,  and  a  pipe  stem 
of  equal  length,  and  put  a  piece  of  wax  on  one 
end  of  each,  and  place  the  other  ends  in  the  fire, 
the  wax  on  the  wire  wiil  melt  directly,  while  the 
wax  on  the  pipe  stem  is  no  warmer  than  when 
first  put  there — the  wire  being  a  good,  and  the  clay 
a  bad  conductor  of  heat.  Among  the  metals,  gold 
is  the  best  conductor  of  heat,  platinum  next,  silver 
next,  copper  next — then  iron,  zinc,  tin,  lead,  mar- 
ble, &c. 

7.  Silks,  woollens,  and  furs  are  bad  conductors 
of  heat,  and  they  are  for  this  reason  worn  in  win- 
ter, that  we  may  retain  the  heat  of  the  body  as  far 
as   possible — the   body   being  warmer  in  winter 


■^%.. 


CALORIC.  25 

than  the  surrounding  air,  it  is  wise  to  keep  within 
us  as  much  of  our  own  caloric  as  we  can.  In 
summer  we  wish  to  let  the  heat  of  the  body  pass 
off,  and  should  at  this  season  wear  those  materials 
that  are  good  conductors  of  heat,  such  as  cotton, 
linen,  <fcc. 

8.  Air  is  a  bad  conductor  of  caloric.  On  this 
account  a  thick  blanket  is  not  as  warm  as  a  quilt ; 
air  being  between  the  two  outside  pieces  and  in 
the  cotton.  The  more  open  or  porous  a  body  is, 
the  less  its  conducting  force.  Animals  living  in 
cold  regions  are  covered  with  fine  furs  which  al- 
most prevent  the  heat's  escaping  from  the  body ; 
while  those  living  in  warm  parts  are  covered  with 
coarse,  thin  hair,  oflering  no  obstacle  to  the  free 
escape  of  heat. 

9.  Bricks,  being  bad  conductors  of  heat,  are 
frequently  heated  and  wrapped  in  a  cloth,  and 
used  for  keeping  the  feet  warm  in  cold  weather  ; 
but  a  heated  piece  of  plank  is  still  better,  because 
wood  does  not  lose  caloric  as  easily  as  brick. 

10.  Black  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  than 
white.  Heat  is  reflected  by  white  but  passes 
through  black.  Take  a  piece  of  black  woollen 
cloth,  and  another  of  the  same  size  and  quality  of 
white,  and  lay  them  upon  the  snow,  when  the  sun 
is  shining.  In  a  few  hours  the  black  will  be  found 
to  have  sunk  below  the  surface  of  the  snow,  while 
the  white  will  remain  on  the  surface.  The  black 
cloth  lets  the  rays  of  caloric  pass  through  it  and 
melt  the  snow  beneath,  while  the  white  reflects 
the  caloric. 

11.  When  we  go  into  the  sun  in  summer  it  is 
wise  to  wear  a  whitish  dress — the  white,  turning 


26  CALORIC. 

the  rays  of  the  sun  away  from  us,  will  make  the 
heat  less  oppressive.  In  winter  by  wearing  black, 
the  rays  of  the  sun  enter  the  clothing  and  give 
warmth  to  the  person. 

12.  There  are  six  sources  of  caloric  :  viz.,  the 
sun's  rays,  combustion,  friction,  the  mixture  of 
different  substances,  electricity,  and  galvanism. 
The  sun  is  the  great  fountain  of  heat,  and  thus  of 
life.  Caloric  comes  from  the  sun  at  the  rate  of 
200,000  miles  in  a  second  of  time.  It  warms  and 
thins  the  frozen  juices  of  the  plants  in  the  spring, 
and  causes  the  sap  to  circulate  through  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  the  trees. 

13.  As  there  is  caloric  in  every  substance, 
whenever  anything  is  burned,  a  separation  of  the 
simple  elements  takes  place  ;  the  caloric  is  set  at 
liberty  and  produces  in  us  the  sensation  of  heat. 
The  caloric  that  was  before  hidden  in  the  wood  or 
coal  has  from  decomposition  become  free  and  ac- 
tive. 

14.  When  two  hard  bodies  are  brought  together 
with  great  force,  a  portion  of  the  hidden  caloric  is 
forced  out.  By  striking  a  flint  with  a  piece  of 
steel,  caloric  enough  is  forced  out  to  melt  the  bits 
of  steel  that  are  struck  off,  and  this  makes  what 
we  call  a  spark. 

15.  A  freezing  body  gives  off  heat.  Taking 
away  the  caloric  (it  has  been  said)  makes  a  liquid 
a  solid.  Consequently  when  water  becomes  ice, 
a  quantity  of  caloric  goes  off  from  the  water. 
This  accounts  for  the  moderation  of  the  weather 
during  a  snow  storm.  The  caloric  that  is  con- 
stantly escaping  from  the  freezing  vapour  warms 
the  atmosphere. 


CALORIC.  27 

16.  Melting  produces  cold.  When  snow  and 
ice  melt  into  water,  they  must  have  an  additional 
quantity  of  caloric,  which  is  taken  directly  from 
the  atmosphere.  Friction  produces  heat  on  the 
same  principle  as  striking  one  hard  body  against 
another  :  viz.,  by  forcing  out  the  hidden  caloric. 
Instances  have  occurred  of  whole  forests'  burning 
down,  by  first  kindling  from  the  violent  friction  of 
the  dry  branches  against  each  other  by  the  wind. 

17.  The  most  intense  heat  can  be  obtained  from 
a  galvanic  apparatus  :  strong  enough  to  melt  iron 
as  quick  as  fire  melts  snow.  If  a  piece  of  char- 
coal is  ignited  by  the  fire  from  a  galvanic  battery, 
it  burns  with  the  greatest  intensity,  and  makes  a 
light  so  bright  that  the  eye  cannot  look  upon  it. 

18.  When  two  substances  are  mixed,  and  the 
mixture  takes  a  more  solid  form,  heat  is  produced  ; 
for  no  substance  can  become  more  dense  without 
giving  off  caloric.  If  we  take  a  vial  half  full  of 
water  in  the  hand,  and  pour  into  it  a  little  oil  of  vit- 
riol (sulphuric  acid)  the  hand  will  feel  warm. 
The  mixture  by  condensing  gives  out  a  portion  of 
its  caloric. 

19.  The  mixture  of  some  substances  produces 
cold.  If  we  put  a  table  spoon  full  of  epsom  salts 
into  a  tumbler  and  then  pour  into  the  tumbler  a  lit- 
tle water,  the  tumbler  will  teel  very  cold.  In  this 
case  the  mixture  has  expanded  and  taken  the  ca- 
loric from  the  tumbler. 

20.  Caloric  expands  bodies.  When  it  enters  a 
substance,  it  removes  the  particles  farther  from 
each  other.  Hence  it  enlarges  the  size  of  bodies, 
which  become  less  compact.  In  this,  caloric  acts 
in  opposition  to  cohesion.     If  we  measure  a  piece 


28  CALORIC. 

of  iron  when  it  is  cold  and  then  heat  it,  we  shall 
find  by  measuring  again  while  hot  that  it  has  in- 
creased in  length  and  thickness. 

21.  The  pendulum  of  a  clock  is  longer  in  warm 
than  in  cold  weather ;  as  clocks  go  slower  in  pro- 
portion as  the  pendulum  is  made  longer,  they  are 
apt  to  go  too  fast  in  cold,  and  too  slow  in  warm 
weather.  We  may  lay  it  down,  then,  as  a  rule, 
that  caloric  expands  all  bodies  ;  that  the  expansion 
of  the  same  body  increases  with  the  quantity  of 
caloric  which  enters  it. 

22.  When  the  particles  of  a  liquid  are  heated 
they  expand  and  thus  become  lighter  than  those 
that  are  yet  cold.  Consequently  the  heated  lighter 
particles  ascend,  and  the  cold  particles  descend. 
Thus  when  fire  is  put  under  a  kettle  containing 
any  liquid,  two  currents  immediately  take  place  ; 
the  hot  particles  rising  to  the  surface  and  the  cold 
ones  falling  to  the  bottom,  there  to  be  heated,  and 
then  give  place  to  others. 

23.  This  will  show  the  adva'^tage  of  placing  the 
fire  directly  under  the  kettle  ;  otherwise  the  water 
in  the  lower  part  will  not  readily  heat.  AVhen  the 
water  bubbles  and  throws  off  steam,  it  is  heated  to 
what  is  called  the  boiling  point.  This  point  is 
2 12°  on  the  thermometer. 

24.  The  atmosphere  rests,  or  presses  upon  every- 
thing on  the  earth  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  pounds 
on  each  square  inch  of  surface.  The  water  hav- 
ing this  pressure  on  it,  does  not  so  easily  bubble 
up  and  the  steam  does  not  rise  so  readily.  If  we 
boil  water  in  a  vacuum,  that  is,  where  there  is  no 
air,  the  degree  of  heat  required  is  less  than  in  the 
open  air  by  140°. 


CALORIC.  29 

25.  Water  boils  in  a  vacuum  at  a  temperature 
of  72°,  Hence  the  higher  you  rise  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  the  less  the  pressure  of  the 
air  and  the  more  quickly  water  boils.  Water  boils 
sooner  by  having  a  lid  over  the  kettle,  and  on  the 
top  of  a  hill  with  a  less  fire  than  it  does  in  the 
valley. 

26.  Water  cannot  be  made  hotter  than  the  boil- 
ing point — 212^.  At  this  pohit  it  flies  off  in  the 
form  of  steam.  If  we  could  make  a  vessel  strong 
enough  to  hold  the  steam,  water  could  be  heated 
red  hot  like  a  piece  of  iron.  But  the  steam  is  so 
strong,  and  has  such  a  desire  to  go  off,  that  it 
would  be  difficult  to  confme  it.  It  is  the  steam's 
desire  to  expand  that  gives  the  steam  engine  its 
power. 

27.  When  children  roast  eggs  they  crack  the 
•shells  slightly  before  they  put  them  into  the  Are, 
to  keep  them  from  exploding,  or  bursting,  as  they 
usually  call  it.  The  egg  bursts  because  the  liquid 
in  the  shell  expands  with  the  heat  ;  if  there  is  a 
little  crack  in  the  shell  the  steam  will  find  vent  and 
do  no  injury ;  but  if  the  vapour  is  confined  the 
shell  explodes  with  a  loud  noise,  and  the  egg  is 
scattered  through  the  ashes. 

28.  So  in  the  boiler  of  a  steam  engine,  if  there 
is  a  proper  vent  (called  safety  valve)  the  steam 
will  do  no  injury  ;  but  if  the  vent  is  not  good,  and 
the  force  of  the  steam  is  stronger  than  the  boiler, 
an  explosion  will  take  place  as  certainly  as  in  the 
roasting  of  an  egg. 

29.  Air  is  expanded  by  heating  it.  If  a  bladder 
containing  air  be  tied  tight  at  the  neck  and  held 
to  the  fire,  it  will  expand  until  it  bursts       If  put 


30  CALORIC. 

in  a  cold  place,  the  bladder  will  contract ;  that  is, 
become  partly  empty. 

30.  When  a  substance  cools  quickly  we  say  its 
radiating  power  is  great.  By  polishing  a  teapot 
or  any  metalic  vessel,  we  lessen  the  radiating 
power  of  the  vessel  and  increase  its  reflecting 
power.  That  is,  a  polished  surface  throws  oflf  the 
heat  coming  from  another  body  better  than  a  rough 
surface  ;  but  a  rough  teapot  lets  the  water  cool 
quicker  than  a  bright  pot. 

31.  It  is  wise,  therefore,  to  have  the  vessels 
which  we  desire  to  keep  hot  water  in  always 
polished  bright.  When  a  body  continues  to  give 
off  more  caloric  than  it  receives,  it  will  become 
colder  than  the  objects  around  it.  The  earth  is 
constantly  giving  off  caloric.  During  the  day  the 
Sim  gives  caloric  to  the  earth,  but  in  the  night  the 
earth  gives  away  heat  without  receiving  any ;  of 
course  the  earth  becomes  colder  during  the  night 
than  the  air. 

32.  The  moisture  in  the  air,  having  some  of  its 
caloric  taken  away  by  the  cooling  earth,  becomes 
water  and  falls  to  the  ground — this  is  what  we  call 
dew.  There  is  no  dew  when  the  night  has  been 
cloudy,  for  the  clouds  are  good  reflectors,  and 
send  the  earth's  caloric  back  again,  and  the  ground 
does  not  cool. 

33.  A  piece  of  bright  tin  is  a  very  good  reflec- 
tor. When  a  stove  is  necessarily  placed  near  a 
wall,  at  oae  side  of  the  room,  a  piece  of  tin  placed 
against  the  wall  opposite  the  stove  will  reflect 
much  of  the  heat  out  into  the  room,  which  other- 
wise would  be  absorbed  by  the  v/all  or  ceiling. 

34.  If  we  should  line  a  room  with  tin  much  less 


CALORIC.  31 

fire  would  be  required,  but  the  heat  would  not  be 
so  agreeable,  and  the  dazzling  surface  would  be  un- 
pleasant to  the  eyes. 

35.  When  a  fire  is  made  in  a  stove  or  fireplace, 
the  particles  of  air  next  to  the  stove  become  warm 
first ;  heat  expands  them,  and  being  lighter  than 
the  cold  particles,  they  rise  up  to  give  place  to 
the  particles  from  above,  that  have  not  been  heated. 
This  makes  two  currents  of  air — a  cold  cur- 
rent going  towards  the  stove,  and  a  warm  current 
going  from  the  stove — till  the  room  is  thoroughly 
warmed. 

36.  We  have  said  that  when  a  body  takes  in  ca- 
loric it  grows  larger,  and  when  it  gives  ofi'  caloric 
it  becomes  smaller.  There  is  one  substance  which 
is  an  exception  to  this  general  rule.  This  is  water ; 
for  when  it  freezes  it  must  lose  some  of  its  caloric, 
yet  it  increases  in  bulk. 

37.  We  can  satisfy  ourselves  of  this  fact  by  let- 
ting a  basin  full  of  water  freeze  hard.  When  fro- 
zen the  ice  will  rise  considerably  above  the  top  of 
the  basin.  A  housekeeper  knows  this  fact  to  her 
sorrow  when  she  finds  her  earthen  pitchers  and 
glass  tumblers  cracked  by  being  suffered  to  stand 
full  of  water  during  a  cold  night. 

38.  This  exception  in  the  laws  of  nature  shows 
the  wise  care  our  Creator  takes  of  us.  If  water, 
like  other  bodies,  should  become  less  in  size 
when  frozen,  the  ice  would  sink  as  soon  as 
formed.  Then  another  layer  of  ice  would  form 
to  sink  in  its  turn,  till  the  rivers  and  lakes  had  be- 
come one  solid  mass  of  ice.  The  fish  must  then 
all  die. 

39.  The  heat  of  summer  would    not   melt   so 


32  OXYGEN. 

much  ice  ;  and  no  ships  could  move  through  the 
water ;  and  finally,  all  animal  and  vegetable  life 
would  be  destroyed.  But  the  Creator  has  made 
the  ice  lighter  than  a  piece  of  water  of  equal  size, 
and  the  ice  floats  on  the  top,  preventing  the  frost's 
reaching  down  far  from  the  surface.  The  thin 
sheet  of  ice  soon  melts  in  the  spring,  and  all  is 
free  again. 


CHAPTER  III. 


1.  Oxygen  gas  is  one  of  the  simple  substances, 
and  forms  part  of  almost  every  body  we  see.  It  is 
one  of  the  principal  elements  of  the  atmosphere 
we  breathe  ;  the  air  being  composed,  almost  en- 
tirely, of  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  About  one  quarter 
of  the  air  is  oxygen,  and  it  enters  into  the  compo- 
sition of  every  animal  and  vegetable,  and  into  many 
of  the  minerals. 

2.  Oxygen  gas  may  be  obtained  in  a  separate 
form  by  several  ways.  The  usual  method  is  to 
separate  it  by  heat  from  red  lead,  manganese,  or 
saltpetre.  By  applying  strong  heat  to  either  of 
these  substances,  the  oxygen  is  disengaged,  and 
goes  off  in  a  separate  form  by  itself,  and  is  caught 
in  a  vessel  prepared  to  receive  it. 

3.  Oxygen  gas  has  neither  colour,  taste,  nor 
smell.  When  suddenly  and  forcibly  pressed,  it 
emits  light  and  heat.     In  its  pure  state  it  is  always 


OXYGEN.  3a 

in  the  form  of  a  gas,  but  when  it  unites  with  solids 
it  becomes  a  solid.  It  is  combined  with  hydrogen 
to  form  water,  and  with  carbon  forming  carbonic 
acid  gas. 

4.  Oxygen  is  found  in  all  kinds  of  rocks  : 
hence,  the  earth,  the  ocean,  and  the  air  abound 
in  it.  Oxygen  has  a  powerful  attraction  for  most 
of  the  simple  substances ;  and  there  is  not  one 
of  them  with  which  it  may  not  be  made  to  com- 
bine. 

5.  When  bodies  are  united  with  it,  they  are  said 
to  be  oxydized.  The  rusting  of  iron  is  occasioned 
by  the  iron's  uniting  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air. 
Gold  and  silver  do  not  rust  much,  that  is,  oxygen 
does  not  combine  with  them  readily.  Iron  we 
know  rusts  or  oxydizes  soon,  if  left  exposed  to  the 
air  and  moisture. 

6.  All  substances  capable  of  burning  burn  with 
far  greater  brilliancy  in  oxygen  gas.  A  piece  of 
wood  having  the  least  spark  of  fire  on  it  bursts  into 
flame  the  moment  it  is  put  into  a  jar  of  oxygen. 
Even  iron  and  steel,  not  commonly  classed  among 
bodies  that  burn,  undergo  a  rapid  combustion  in 
oxygen  gas. 

7.  Now,  if  the  air  was  wholly  made  of  oxygen, 
everything  would  burn  up.  If  we  should  put  fire 
into  a  stove,  the  stove  itself  would  burn.  The 
blacksmith  in  heating  his  iron  would  see  his  ham- 
mer and  anvil  bursting  into  a  flame. 

8.  But  the  all-wise  Creator  has  put  just  enough 
of  oxygen  into  the  air  to  burn  wood,  oil,  coal,  &c. ; 
but  not  so  much  as  to  render  fire  dangerous,  under 
proper  care.  The  whole  world  would  burn  up  by 
increasing  the  quantity  of  oxygen  a  little. 

C 


34  OXYGEN. 

9.  Take  all  the  oxygen  out  of  the  world  and 
nothing  would  burn.  Oxygen  is,  therefore,  called 
the  supporter  of  combustion.  The  oxygen  in 
the  air  makes  our  candles  and  fuel  burn.  When 
they  burn,  their  ingredients  do  indeed  disappear, 
but  they  are  not  destroyed.  Although  these  in- 
gredients lly  off  in  a  gaseous  form,  and  are  com- 
monly lost  to  us,  still  they  can  be  collected  and 
preserved. 

10.  AVhen  this  is  done  with  requisite  care,  it  is 
found  that  the  ingredients  of  the  bodies  that  have 
been  burned  weigh  more  after  than  before  com- 
bustion ;  and  that  the  increase  in  weight  is  equal 
to  the  quantity  of  oxygen  which  has  disappeared 
during  the  burning.  Alan  cannot  destroy  matter — 
he  can  only  change  its  form  and  appearance. 

11.  Combustion,  or  burning,  is  nothing  more 
than  the  rapid  union  of  oxygen  gas  vnth.  combus- 
tible matter.  This  rapid  union  is  always  attended 
with  a  disengagement  of  heat  and  light.  Before 
oxygen  will  unite  with  combustible  matter,  the 
temperature  of  the  materials  you  wish  to  burn 
must  be  considerably  raised.  This  is  done  by 
putting  fire,  or  caloric,  on  the  wood,  coal,  or  candle- 
wick. 

12.  Oxygen  is  not  only  necessary  to  combus- 
tion, it  is  also  necessary  to  animal  life.  No  ani- 
mal can  live  in  an  atmosphere  which  does  not 
contain  a  certain  portion  of  oxygen ;  for  an  an- 
imal soon  dies  if  confined  in  a  portion  of  air  from 
which  the  oxygen  has  been  previously  removed. 

13.  If  we  confine  an  animal  in  a  vessel  that  is 
air  tight,  the  animal  will  feel  no  inconvenience  at 
first,  but  it  will  soon  grow  uneasy,  breathe  hard, 


OXYGEN.  35 

and  shortly  die.  If  the  air  in  the  vessel  is  now 
examined,  it  will  be  found  to  contain  no  oxygen. 
While  the  air  had  oxygen  in  it  the  animal  did  well 
enough,  but  as  soon  as  its  breathing  had  consumed 
all  the  oxygen  the  animal  died. 

14.  The  object  of  breathing  is  to  purify  the 
blood ;  and  the  oxygen  in  the  air  seems  to  be  the 
purifying  principle.  As  breathing  destroys  oxy- 
gen, the  air  in  a  room  filled  with  people  becomes 
bad,  and  unfitted  for  supporting  life.  Candles  in 
such  a  room  do  not  burn  briskly,  as  there  is  a  want 
of  oxygen. 

15.  The  people  who  died  in  the  "Black  Hole 
of  Calcutta"  soon  consumed  all  the  oxygen  in  that 
small  place,  and  as  fresh  air  could  not  enter,  there 
was  nothing  left  to  support  life.  It  is  very  neces- 
sary lo  have  rooms,  especially  schoolrooms,  well 
ventilated.  The  bad  air  should  be  permitted  to 
pass  off,  and  fresh  air  have  a  free  circulation. 

16.  It  is  oxygen  that  turns  things  sour.  Oxy- 
gen uniting  with  sweet  cider  makes  vinegar.  As 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  goes  into  the  cider  it  is  wise 
to  let  the  cask  be  only  part  full,  and  the  bung  be 
left  out,  that  the  air  may  touch  as  much  of  the  li- 
quid as  possible.  It  is  the  oxygen  that  turns  mo- 
lasses, beer,  maple  sap,  &c.,  sour.  This  effect  of 
oxygen  is  called  its  acidifying  effect — and  makes 
all  the  acids  and  oxyds  that  we  know  of. 


36  NITROGEN. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

NITROGEN. 


1.  Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  atmo- 
spheric air  ;  oxygen  and  nitrogen  being  the  two  el- 
ements which  make  the  air.  Nitrogen  is  a  gas 
without  colour,  taste,  or  smell,  and  does  not  sup- 
port combustion  or  animal  life. 

2.  It  extinguishes  all  burning  bodies  that  are 
immersed  in  it,  and  no  animal  can  live  in  it.  Ni- 
trogen can  be  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by  ta- 
king the  oxygen  out  of  a  quantity  of  air,  which 
leaves  the  nitrogen  alone  by  itself. 

3.  The  oxygen  can  be  taken  out  in  this  way : 
burn  a  piece  of  phosphorus  in  a  jar,  which  must 
be  turned  bottom  upward,  with  the  open  mouth 
resting  on  water  ;  or,  standing  an  inch  or  two  in 
the  water.  The  phosphorus  burns  while  lying  on 
the  water,  till  all  the  oxygen  in  the  jar  is  con- 
sumed. The  water  will  then  absorb  the  carbonic 
acid  created  by  burning  the  phosphorus,  leaving  the 
nitrogen  alone  in  the  jar. 

4.  Nitrogen  is  much  lighter  than  oxygen,  and 
consequently  than  the  air.  In  a  crowded  room 
where  the  oxygen  has  been  taken  out  of  the  air  by 
breathing,  the  nitrogen  rises  and  remains  near  the 
ceiling.  The  upper  part  of  a  crowded  room,  there- 
fore, should  be  aA^oided. 

5.  In  a  crowded  room  there  is  another  bad  gas, 


ATMOSPHERE.  37 

which  falls  to  the  floor,  and  is  destructive  of  life. 
This  will  be  described  hereafter. 

Nitrogen  is  found  in  all  animals^  but  only  in  a 
few  vegetables. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ATMOSPHERE. 

1 .  The  air  is  that  very  light  fluid  that  surrounds 
us  everywhere  :  we  live  in  it,  and  could  not  exist 
without  it.  It  extends  forty-five  miles  above  the 
earth.  The  attraction  of  gravitation  keeps  it  to 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  the  same  manner  that 
any  moveable  object  is  kept ;  it  also  revolves  with 
the  earth  around  the  sun.  The  wind  is  nothing 
more  than  the  air  in  motion. 

2.  The  atmosphere  is  without  colour,  invisible, 
has  neither  taste  nor  smell,  and  unless  in  motion, 
is  not  perceived  by  the  sense  of  touch.  It  is  831 
times  lighter  than  water ;  that  is,  a  quart  of  air  is 
831  times  lighter  than  a  quart  of  water. 

3.  Its  qualities  are  fluidity,  expansibility,  elas- 
ticity, and  gravity.  Its  great  fluidity  arises  from 
the  absence  of  the  attraction  of  cohesion.  This 
attraction  has  little  or  no  influence  upon  the  parti- 
cles of  air. 

4.  Its  elasticity  is  great,  for  128  bottlefuls  of 
air  can  be  so  compressed  as  to  be  put  into  one  of 
the  bottles.  As  soon  as  the  pressure  is  taken  ofi", 
the  air  springs  out  to  its  usual  volume. 


38  ATMOSPHERE. 

5.  The  air  expands  largely  likewise.  Heating 
it  increases  its  size,  or  volume.  If  a  bladder  con- 
taining a  small  quantity  of  air  be  held  to  the  fire, 
the  swelling  will  be  seen^  occasioned  by  the  expan- 
sion of  the  air  within. 

6.  The  weight  or  gravity  of  the  air,  it  has  been 
seen  by  comparing  it  with  water,  is  small.  Its 
lightness  is  wisely  ordered,  for  if  it  was  even  as 
heavy  as  water,  we  should  not  be  able  to  move 
through  it  with  such  rapidity. 

7.  Its  oxygen,  we  have  said,  supports  animal 
life,  and  makes  all  our  fires  burn,  and  its  fluidity 
carries  the  vapours  rising  from  the  seas  and  lakes 
over  the  earth  to  give  drink  to  the  grass,  the  grain, 
the  trees,  and  the  plants. 

8.  If  its  particles  did  not  move  over  each  other 
so  easily,  the  air  would  not  be  the  great  carrier  of 
the  clouds  which  supply  water  to  the  vegetable 
kingdom. 

9.  The  lightness  and  elasticity  of  the  air  ena- 
ble the  birds  to  use  their  wings,  and  go  from  place 
to  place  with  the  fleelness  almost  of  the  aerial  cur- 
rents. From  the  great  weight  of  the  atmosphere, 
we  are  enabled  to  raise  water  from  the  well  by 
means  of  the  common  pump. 

10.  The  atmosphere  presses  verj^  heavily  on 
the  water  in  the  well.  When  the  bucket  in  the 
pump  is  raised,  it  leaves  the  bottom  part  of  the 
pump  emptied  of  its  air,  and  the  atmosphere  pres- 
sing on  the  surface  of  the  well  crowds  the  water 
up  the  empty  pump. 

11.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  prevents 
water  from  evaporating  too  much  ;  if  the  pressure 
was  a  little  less  we  should  not  have  any  water  on 


ATMOSPHERE.  39 

the  earth,  for  a  small  degree  of  heat  would  send 
the  fluids  up  into  the  atmosphere.  As  it  is,  the 
degree  of  heat  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  amount 
of  pressure.  The  weight  of  the  air  binds  the  wa- 
ter down  as  it  were. 

12.  The  whole  weight  of  the  atmosphere  is 
thought  to  be,  by  philosophers,  equal  to  the  weight 
of  a  ball  of  lead  sixty  miles  through — two  thou- 
sand one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds  pressure  on 
every  square  foot  of  ground.  The  air  presses  in 
every  direction  :  upward,  downward,  and  sidewise. 
It  is  owing  to  this  that  we  are  not  injured  by  the 
great  weight  of  the  atmosphere. 

13.  When  I  hold  out  my  hand  I  feel  no  weight 
upon  it,  because  the  pressure  under  and  above  my 
hand  is  equal.  It  is  pressed  up  as  much  as  down  ; 
the  elasticity  or  spring  of  the  air  pressing  up. 

14.  Atmospheric  air  contains  about  one  part  in 
every  thousand  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  This  gas 
when  breathed  by  animals  destroys  life.  It  is 
much  heavier  than  air,  and  is  frequently  found  in 
old  wells,  pit  holes,  and  low  marshy  places.  It 
is  created  by  breathing,  and  falls  to  the  floor  of  the 
room.     More  will  be  said  of  it  hereafter. 

15.  The  air  also  contains  water  in  the  form  of 
vapour,  and  a  large  quantity  of  gaseous  particles, 
rising  from  various  bodies  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  and  oxygen  of  the  air.  It  is  seen,  that 
the  air  is  a  compound  of  a  great  number  of  sub- 
stances, and  that  it  is  the  great  receptacle  for 
everything  too  light  to  stay  on  the  earth. 

16.  As  there  are  many  things  that  are  constantly 
rising  into  it,  we  should  do  all  that  can  be  done  to 
obtain  air  in  as  pure  a  state  as  possible.     In  th« 


40        CARBON. — CARBONIC  ACID. 

schoolroom   each   pupil   destroys    the  oxygen  of 
about  one  gallon  of  air  every  minute. 

17.  The  oxygen  in  the  air,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, is  what  supports  animal  life.  And  from  the 
body  of  every  pupil  there  is  a  constant  escape  of 
an  impure  matter,  in  the  form  of  gas,  going  into 
the  room  and  loading  the  air  with  disease. 

18.  The  air  thus  unfitted  for  supporting  life 
should  be  let  off  by  ventilators  in  the  ceiling,  and 
not  retained,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  in  the  school- 
room, to  give  the  pupils  drowsiness,  stupor,  and 
disease. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CARBON. CARBONIC    ACID.* 

1.  Carbon  is  extensively  diffused  through  na- 
ture, and  is  found  in  both  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms.  Charcoal  is  nearly  pure  carbon  ;  so  is 
cotton  ;  and  the  diamond  is  nothing  but  pure  car- 
bon crystalized.  Lampblack  and  soot  are  also 
chiefly  carbon. 

2.  Charcoal  is  formed  by  heating  wood  to  a  red 
heat,  in  a  place  where  the  air  is  not  admitted. 
Usually,  when  charcoal  is  made,  the  wood  is  cov- 
ered with  earth,  the  whole  forming  what  is  called 
a  "  coal  pit." 

*  The  most  of  this  chapter  is  taken  from  "  Chymistry  for  Be- 
ginners."- 


CARBON. CARBONIC    ACID.  41 

3.  If  you  burn  wood  in  the  open  air,  the  whole, 
almost,  will  disappear  in  the  form  of  vapour  and 
carbonic  acid  gas  ;  a  small  portion  of  ashes  is  the 
only  thing  left.  But  charcoal,  which  is  almost  all 
carbon,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  various 
kinds  of  coal  that  are  dug  out  of  the  earth ;  these 
are  called  mineral  coal:  They,  it  is  true,  contain 
a  large  portion  of  carbon,  but  mixed  with  sulphur, 
pitch,  and  iron.  They,  consequently,  are  heavier 
than  charcoal. 

4.  Charcoal  is  remarkable  for  its  power  of  ab- 
sorbing, or  taking  in  gases  of  different  kinds,  and 
for  letting  them  escape  again  when  it  is  heated. 
When  newly  made,  its  pores  are  filled  with  the 
first  kind  of  air  or  gas  which  comes  in  contact 
with  it.  To  free  its  pores  it  must  be  heated,  when 
it  is  again  ready  to  absorb  other  gases. 

5.  Hence,  charcoal  will  purify  water  that  has 
become  putrid,  and  for  this  reason  is  very  useful 
to  persons  at  sea,  who  cannot  obtain  fresh  water. 
Tainted  meat  may  be  made  sweet  by  being  boiled 
with  powdered  charcoal,  or  rubbed  thoroughly 
with  it.  But  the  housekeeper  who  uses  it  for  this 
purpose  must  remember  that  it  must  be  heated 
to  redness,  and  applied  to  the  meat  before  it  has 
absorbed  other  gases  than  the  putrid  odour  of  the 
meat. 

6.  Charcoal  in  the  form  of  lampblack  is  used 
with  oil  for  paints  and  printer's  ink  ;  with  iron, 
it  forms  steel ;  with  sulphur  and  nitre,  it  makes 
gunpowder.  It  is  in  common  use  for  fuel,  and 
especially  for  cooking  operations  of  various  kinds. 
The  diamond  furnishes  not  only  the  most  elegant 


42        CARBON. CARBONIC  ACID. 

ornaments,  but  is  useful  in  arts ;  and  is   the  best 
substance  known  for  cutting  glass. 

7.  Carbonic  acid  gas  (sometimes  called  fixed 
air)  is  found  in  limestone  and  magnesia,  and  may- 
be driven  out  from  these  solid  substarwes  by  heat. 
This  gas  is  also  formed  by  breathing,  fermentation, 
and  combustion. 

8.  No  animal  can  live  in  this  gas — they  die  al- 
most immediately.  It  is  different  in  its  effects 
upon  the  lungs  from  nitrogen  or  hydrogen  ;  they 
do  not  support  life,  carbonic  acid  gas  destroys  it. 
In  the  two  former,  animals  die  for  the  want  of 
oxygen,  in  the  latter  they  are  killed.  It  is  on  ac- 
count of  the  deadly  nature  of  this  gas  that  char- 
coal is  so  dangerous  when  burned  in  a  close  room. 

9.  The  small  portable  furnaces  which  are  now 
so  much  in  use  for  cooking,  ironing,  and  other 
household  operations,  should  never  be  used  except 
in  the  open  air,  or  in  a  fireplace  ;  and  then  the 
doors  of  the  room  should  be  opened.  The  char- 
coal, as  it  burns,  gives  off  carbon,  which,  uniting 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  forms  carbonic  acid  gas. 

10.  This  gas  does  not  support  combustion,  and 
an  animal  cannot  live  in  air  which  contains  suffi- 
cient carbonic  acid  for  extinguishing  a  lighted 
candle.  Hence,  the  wisdom  of  letting  down  a 
burning  candle  into  old  wells,  or  pits,  before  any 
one  ventures  to  descend.  If  the  light  goes  out, 
the  air  is  certainly  impure,  and  there  is  generally 
no  danger  if  the  light  continues  to  burn.  As  it  is 
heavier  than  the  atmosphere,  it  sinks  into  these 
low,  excavated  places. 

11.  This  gas  is  called  carbonic  acid,  because  it 
gives  to  liquid  substances  an  acid,  or  sour  taste, 


CARBON. CARBONIC  ACID.        43 

of  a  peculiar  kind,  which,  though  not  sharp,  is 
lively  and  refreshing.  The  agreeable  pungency 
of  beer,  bottled  cider,  &c.,  is  in  a  great  measure 
owing  to  the  presence  of  this  gas  ;  by  the  loss  of 
which,  or  exposure  to  the  air,  they  become  stale. 
It  causes  the  sparkling  and  boiling  up  of  soda 
water,  and  the  liveliness  of  the  Saratoga  mineral 
waters. 

12.  The  peculiar  properties  of  yeast  or  empty- 
ings are  owing  to  this  gas.  In  struggling  to  es- 
cape through  the  wet  flour,  or  dough  of  which 
bread  is  made,  the  carbonic  acid  gas  becomes  en- 
tangled and  causes  the  little  cavities  or  holes  which 
appear  in  light  bread.  Pearlash  makes  cake  light 
on  account  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  it  con- 
tains. 

13.  We  see  that  the  effect  of  this  gas  on  animal 
life  is  death,  and  we  also  see  that  this  gas  is  pro- 
duced in  great  abundance  from  the  breathing  of 
animals,  decomposition  or  ''rotting'^  of  animals 
and  vegetables,  and  the  burning  of  candles  and 
fires.  Apparently,  it  would  increase  sufficiently 
in  a  short  time  to  destroy  all  animal  life. 

14.  But  the  wisdom  of  the  Creator  has  made 
the  plants  of  such  a  nature  that  they  absorb  this 
gas,  and  the  atmosphere  which  is  breathed  by  ani- 
mals is  purified  by  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

15.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  food  for  plants,  and 
they  are  nourished  by  what  is  given  off  by  and 
destroys  animals.  Again,  the  life  of  animals  is 
oxygen,  and  plants  give  off  this  gas  in  large  abun- 
dance. How  wisely  are  the  two  kingdoms  related 
to  each  other !  !  Truly,  "  In  wisdom  has  He  made 
them  all." 


44  LIGHT. ELECTRICITY. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

LIGHT. ELECTRICITY. 

1.  Light  has  a  very  important  action  upon  veg- 
etation. Plants  raised  in  dark  places  are  nearly 
without  colour,  perfume,  taste,  or  firmness  of  tex- 
ture. 

2.  Whether  the  luminous  fluid  called  light  en- 
ters into  the  plants  or  not,  it  certainly  has  a  won- 
derful influence  on  their  combinations.  Plants 
do  not  emit  oxygen  gas,  excepting  when  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun ;  and  it  is  known,  also,  that 
flowers  rarely  produce  fruit  if  raised  entirely  in 
the  shade. 

3.  When  electricity  is  abundantly  difiiised  through 
the  atmosphere,  it  has  a  powerful  influence  over 
vegetation.  It  excites  the  action  of  oxygen,  and 
determines  the  condensation  of  the  aqueous  fluids. 
Grain  germinates  or  sprouts  quicker  in  water  filled 
with  electricity.  And  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
fermentation  takes  place  most  rapidly  during  a 
thunder  storm :  at  this  time  the  air  is  full  of  elec- 
tricity. 

4.  A  liquid  consisting  of  a  variety  of  ingredients, 
not  very  closely  united,  milk  for  instance,  is  de- 
composed and  becomes  sour  under  a  highly  elec- 
tric state  of  the  air — dairy  women  know  that  their 
milk  sours  very  rapidly  during  a  thunder  shower. 
It  is  the  presence  of  a  great  quantity  of  electri- 
city that  produces  this  eff'ect. 

5.  We  have  now  mentioned  the  principal  ingre- 


LIGHT. ELECTRICITY.  46 

dients  and  principles  existing  in  the  atmosphere, 
which  have  more  or  less  influence  upon  plants 
and  animals.  The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is 
water. 

6.  When  we  reflect  upon  the  influence  which 
the  atmosphere  exercises  over  vegetation  and  over 
the  principal  operations  carried  on  by  farmers,  we 
are  astonished  at  not  finding  the  simple  instruments 
which  tell  its  changes  every  moment. 

7.  There  should  be  on  every  farm  a  hygrome- 
ter, to  ascertain  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  ;  a 
thermometer,  to  indicate  the  degree  of  cold  and 
heat ;  and  a  barometer,  to  determine  the  weight  of 
the  atmosphere.  This  last  instrument  would  be 
very  valuable,  by  foretelling  the  changes  of  the 
weather  ;  the  rising  of  the  mercury  announces  the 
return  of  dry  weather,  and  its  sinking  warns  of 
rain  and  storms. 

8.  It  is  true  that  we  can  regard  these  variations 
only  as  signs  ;  but  they  are  signs  much  more  cer- 
tain than  those  which  people  derive  from  the 
screaming  of  tree  toads  and  the  changes  of  the 
moon.  Expensive,  complicated  instruments  are 
not  wanted  ;  but  cheap,  simple,  yet  determinate 
ones  should  always  be  had. 

9.  Judge  Buel,  in  his  invaluable  paper,  the  Cul- 
tivator, has  somewhere  described  these  instruments, 
and  given  such  directions  as  will  enable  farmers  to 
obtain  and  use  them. 


*^^ 


46  HYDROGEN. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

HYDROGEN. 

1.  Hydrogen  is  a  gas,  and  one  of  the  simple 
substances  ;  it  has  neither  colour,  taste,  nor  smell. 
Hydrogen  and  oxygen  united  form  water ;  and 
wherever  water  is  found  there  is  hydrogen.  It  is 
the  lightest  substance  that  we  knewv  of.  It  is 
found  in  vegetables  and  animals,  and  even  in  the 
rocks. 

2.  As  hydrogen  and  oxygen  form  water,  it  fol- 
lows that  when  the  oxygen  is  taken  from  the  water, 
the  hydrogen  is  left  in  a  separate  form  by  itself. 
Hydrogen,  then,  can  be  procured  in  the  following 
way. 

3.  Put  a  few  bits  of  iron  into  a  vessel,  and  pour 
upon  them  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  and  four  times  as 
much  water,  and  the  hydrogen  of  the  water  will 
rise  in  a  separate  gaseous  form,  when  it  may  be 
caught  in  a  vessel  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

4.  The  reason  of  the  hydrogen's  rising  is  this  : 
The  sulphuric  acid  aids  the  oxygen  of  the  water 
in  its  strong  desire  to  unite  with  the  iron,  which  is 
soon  done,  leaving  the  hydrogen  to  rise,  it  being 
extremely  light. 

5.  Hydrogen  does  not  support  animal  life  ;  for 
an  animal  soon  perishes  when  confined  in  it.  The 
hydrogen  has  no  destructive  quality  in  it,  and  death 
is  occasioned,  simply,  by  the  want  of  oxygen. 

6.  Neither  is  hydrogen  a  supporter  of  combus- 
tion ;  for  if  we  put  a  candle  into  it  the  light  goes 


nVDROGEX.  47 

out  in  an  instant :  yet  hydrogen  burns  Turiously 
when  we  put  fire  to  it. 

7.  The  blaze  of  a  candle,  or  of  a  piece  of  wood 
or  coal,  is  nothing  but  hydrogen  and  a  little  carbon 
burning — the  oil,  tallow,  coal,  and  wood  furnishing 
the  hydrogen.  The  union  of  the  oxygen  in  the  air 
with  the  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  candles,  wood, 
and  coal,  is  always  attended  with  heat  and  light, 
and  makes  what  we  call  "  fire." 

8.  If  we  put  hydrogen  and  oxygen  together  and 
then  set  fire  to  the  mixture,  we  shall  have  a  loud 
explosion,  and  find  that  water  has  been  formed. 
It  appears  a  little  strange  that  water  can  be  formed 
by  burning  substances  ! !  To  produce  this  effect 
the  mixture  is  two  parts  of  hydrogen  and  one  of 
oxygen. 

9.  The  gas  we  burn  in  cities,  for  the  purpose 
of  lighting  the  streets,  public  buildings,  &c.,  now 
used  instead  of  candles  and  lamps,  is  principally 
the  hydrogen  gas.  The  companies  who  furnish 
this  gas  to  the  citizens  make  it  from  coal. 

10.  Coal,  when  exposed  to  heat  in  a  closed  ves- 
sel, is  decomposed  ;  and  hydrogen,  which  is  one 
of  the  ingredients  of  coal,  rises  in  a  state  of  gas, 
having  a  little  carbon  with  it,  forming  a  compound 
gas,  called  hydro-carbonat.  This  is  the  gas  used 
to  light  cities,  &;c.,  and  is  transparent,  invisible,  and 
burns  very  readily  and  rapidly.  This  is  a  modern 
invention,  and  makes  a  great  saving  of  oil  andL 
tallow. 

11.  In  mines  where  they  dig  out  coal,  this  hy- 
dro-carbonat gas  is  found  in  great  quantities. 
This  gas,  when  found  there,  is  formed  either  by 
coal  now  burning  far  under  ground,  or  wao  made 


48  HYDROGEN. 

by  a  former  combustion  and  kept  in  the  caves  and 
holes  of  the  mine  till  the  'Jjresent  time. 

12.  When  the  coaldiggers  open  the  mine,  the 
oxygen  contained  in  the  atmosphere  mixes  with 
this  hydro-carbonat  gas.  Now  we  have  said  that 
when  oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  mixed  and  then 
ignited,  a  deafening  explosion  takes  place.  If 
these  miners  take  fire  with  them  into  the  mine, 
they  are  liable  to  be  blown  up  at  any  moment ;  for 
this  hydro-carbonat  gas,  we  know,  takes  fire  with 
great  readiness,  and  being  mixed  with  oxygen  will 
make  a  tremendous  explosion. 

13.  As  it  is  so  far  under  ground,  the  people 
must  have  a  lamp  to  see  how  to  work,  and  ex- 
plosions have  very  often  happened  which  killed 
hundreds  of  men  and  horses.  This  combustible 
gas  will  collect  there,  the  coal  must  be  dug  out, 
and  the  people  must  have  a  light  to  see  how  to 
work. 

14.  But  explosions  were  constantly  taking  place, 
killing  great  numbers  every  time,  till  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy — a  great  chymist — invented  a  lamp,  called 
safety  lamp,  which  gives  the  miners  light  but  does 
not  set  fire  to  the  gas. 

15.  This  was  a  great  invention,  and  has  saved 
thousands  of  lives  and  made  it  safe  for  people  to 
work  in  mines,  that  before  no  one  would  enter. 

16.  This  safety  lamp  is  nothing  more  than  a 
common  lamp,  surrounded  with  a  fine  wire  net- 
work, or  gauze,  which  covering  gives  such  a  shape 
to  the  gas  when  it  approaches  the  blaze  that  fire 
is  not  communicated  to  the  body  of  gas  outside  of 
the  network. 


WATER.  49 


CHAPTER  IX. 

WATER. 


1.  Water,  as  has  been  said,  is  a  compound 
body,  consisting  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  It  is 
found  in  four  states  ;  the  purest  of  which  is  a  solid, 
as  that  of  ice.  Increase  the  quantity  of  caloric  in 
a  cake  of  ice,  and  it  becomes  a  liquid,  and  a  still 
greater  increase  of  caloric  makes  the  liquid  a  va- 
pour. 

2.  Water  is  also  in  a  state  of  composition  with 
other  bodies,  because  in  many  cases  it  becomes 
one  of  their  component  parts ;  as  constituting  a 
part  of  the  juices  of  animals  and  vegetables. 
Water  contains  atmospheric  air,  which  is  as  neces- 
sary to  the  life  of  the  fish  as  it  is  to  animals  that 
live  on  land. 

3.  The  particles  of  air  in  the  water  pass  over 
the  gills  (the  lungs  of  a  fish)  and  purify  the  blood. 
If  we  take  the  air  out  of  a  bottle  of  water  and  then 
put  a  fish  into  it,  there  will  be  almost  immediate 
death.  The  more  pure  air  the  water  contains  the 
healthier  it  is  ;  and  hence  we  should  not  keep 
wells  covered  as  close  as  many  people  do. 

4.  Water  expands  gTeatly  when  it  changes  into 
steam.  The  steam  of  one  drop  occupies  as  much 
room,  or  space,  as  800  drops  in  a  liquid  state.  At 
the  poles  the  water  always  exists  in  a  solid  state. 
It  is  so  hard  there  it  can  be  cut  with  a  chisel  like 
marble. 


D 


50  WATER. 

5.  Water  falling  through  the  atmosphere  absorbs 
many  impurities  which  float  in  the  air,  and  thus 
purifies  the  element  we  breathe  and  live  in.  We 
say,  "  How  sweet  the  air  is  after  a  shower." 

6.  Salt  water  is  much  heavier  than  fresh  water ; 
a  vessel  so  loaded  as  to  sink  in  fresh  water  would 
float  in  salt  water. 

7.  "  Water  influences  vegetation  not  only  by  the 
nutritive  principles  furnished  to  plants  by  its  decom- 
position, but  by  means  wholly  physical,  which  we 
shall  first  consider.  The  first  effect  of  water  upon 
a  soil  appropriated  to  vegetation  is,  to  moisten  and 
divide  the  earth,  and  consequently  to  favour  the 
extension  of  roots,  the  introduction  of  air,  and  the 
development  of  seeds. 

8.  "  The  second  is  that  of  conveying  to  the  seed 
the  first  aliment  required  by  it,  oxygen,  which 
that  liquid  always  holds  in  solution  in  a  greater  oi 
less  degree,  and  which  is,  as  I  have  already  ob- 
served, the  principal  agent  in  germination.  The 
third  office  performed  by  water  is  that  of  dividing 
the  manure  applied  to  the  soil,  of  dissolving  some 
portions  of  it,  and  conveying  them  to  the  organs 
of  the  plants  in  a  state  fitted  for  their  digestion  and 
nourishment. 

9.  "  All  kinds  of  water  are  not  equally  suitable 
for  this  purpose  ;  rain  water,  which  is  the  purest 
and  contains  the  most  air  of  any,  is  also  the  best 
for  supplying  the  wants  of  plants.  Generally 
speaking,  those  streams  which  have  their  rise  in 
granitic  or  primitive  calcareous  mountains  are  fa- 
vourable to  vegetation  ;  but  it  is  necessary  that  they 
should  flow  through  soils  free  from  metallic  salts, 
Ci  earths  ;  and  that  they  should  have  traversed. 


WATER.  61 

before  being  used  in  agriculture,  a  sufficient  space 
to  have  become  impregnated  with  a  due  portion  of 
atmospheric  air. 

10.  "  Streams  may  not  be  pure,  and  yet  may  be 
very  serviceable  for  watering  the  soil,  especially  if 
they  carry,  or  hold  in  solution,  certain  salts  favour- 
able to  plants,  and  some  animal  or  vegetable  sub- 
stances. In  this  case  they  possess  double  virtue 
and  produce  double  effect. 

11.  "  Waters  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  ; 
the  first  comprehending  those  that  are  charged 
with  animal  matter ;  the  second,  those  which  hold 
in  solution  some  of  the  principles  of  vegetables  ; 
and  the  third,  the  pure  waters,  or  those  which 
contain  salts  in  but  small  quantities. 

12.  "  The  waters  of  the  first  class  are  the  most 
active ;  and  among  them,  those  which  are  loaded 
with  the  sweat  of  wool,  or  with  the  ammoniacal 
combinations  arising  from  the  fermentation  of  pow- 
dered bones,  of  shavings  of  horn,  or  fragments  of 
wool,  hold  the  first  rank.  When  employed  in 
their  dry  state,  as  manures,  these  substances  pro- 
duce their  effects  very  slowly,  but  exercise  a  much 
more  energetic  action  when,  during  decomposition 
by  putrefaction,  their  products  are  absorbed  by 
water  as  fast  as  formed,  and  immediately  conveyed 
to  the  plants.  The  soft,  fleshy,  or  liquid  portions 
of  animal  substance  do  not  produce  so  lasting  an 
effect ;  their  decomposition  is  too  rapid  for  their 
action  to  be  continued  for  any  length  of  time. 

13.  '•  The  waters  of  the  second  class,  those  that 
are  charged  with  some  of  the  products  of  vegeta- 
tion, either  natural  or  arising  from  decomposition, 
form   very  good   manures.      When   plants   have 


52  WATER. 

yielded  to  water  all  their  soluble  portions,  the  sub- 
sequent decomposition  of  their  insoluble  fibres 
furnishes  new  soluble  products,  which  serve  for 
nourishment ;  water  imbibes  these  as  fast  as  they 
are  formed,  and  transmits  them  to  the  plants  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact.  In  this  manner  dead 
plants  supply  food  to  the  living,  and  all  the  ele- 
ments composing  the  first  are  found  differently 
combined  in  the  last. 

14.  "  When  natural  vegetable  products,  or  those 
arising  from  decomposition,  are  mixed  with,  or 
dissolved  in  urine  or  the  other  animal  fluids  which 
are  charged  with  salts,  the  effect  upon  vegetation 
is  much  increased,  because,  in  addition  to  exciting 
the  digestive  organs  of  plants,  these  salts  dissolve 
some  substances  which  could  not  in  their  original 
state  penetrate  into  these  organs.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  cakes  of  rape  seed,  wild  mustard,  and 
nuts,  used  in  the  manner  mentioned  above,  afford 
the  best  manure  known. 

15.  "  The  waters  constituting  the  third  class 
hold  in  solution  some  salts  ;  these  salts  may  be 
considered  as  performing  several  offices  in  the  act 
of  vegetation  ;  they  stimulate  the  vitality  of  plants, 
and  increase  thje  activity  of  their  powers ;  they 
produce,  in  fact,  upon  plants  the  same  effect  as 
those  produced  upon  the  human  body  by  the  use 
of  such  condiments  as  marine  salt  and  saltpetre. 
Salts  of  the  same  nature  as  those  contained  in 
waters  of  the  third  class,  always  produce  good  ef- 
fects upon  the  soil  to  which  they  are  applied,  either 
by  sprinkling  the  ground  with  them,  or  combining 
them  with  barnyard  manure. 

1 6.  "  Though  these  salts  are  useful  to  vegetation, 


WATER.  63 

it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  using  them  in  ex- 
cessive portions  ;  as  they  then  dry  up  and  destroy 
the  plants.  Lands  which  have  been  long  over- 
flowed by  the  sea  refuse  to  yield  anything  to  cul- 
tivation till  they  have,  by  the  repeated  action  of 
fresh  water  been  freed  from  the  salt  with  which 
they  had  become  impregnated. 

17.  "Some  of  the  salts  that  are  conveyed  into 
plants  by  water  exert  an  influence  over  them  in- 
dependent of  their  stimulating  power  ;  being  de- 
composed within  their  organs,  and  serving,  by 
the  assimilation  of  their  constituent  principles,  as 
nourishment  to  the  plants.  The  greater  part  of 
the  salts  derived  from  the  animal  or  vegetable 
kingdoms  are  of  this  description. 

18.  "  Having  considered  water  as  a  mechanical 
power,  and  as  a  vehicle  for  the  conveyance  of  food 
to  plants,  it  remains  for  me  to  make  known  its  di- 
rect influence  upon  them.  M.  de  Saussure  has 
proved  by  experiment,  that  plants  decompose  water, 
and  appropriate  to  their  own  uses  the  hydrogen 
and  the  oxygen  contained  in  it ;  but  this  assimila- 
tion is  very  trifling,  if  they  cannot  at  the  same 
time  absorb  carbonic  acid.  The  small  increase  of 
weight  gained  bj''  a  plant  in  an  atmosphere  contain- 
ing only  oxygen  sufficiently  verifies  this. 

19.  "Dead  plants  which  ferment  when  secluded 
from  oxygen  give  out  some  carbonic  acid  ;  but 
this  only  proves  the  combination  between  the  car- 
bon and  oxygen  contained  in  vegetable  products. 

20.  "  Next  to  carbon,  the  most  abundant  princi- 
ple in  plants  is  hydrogen  ;  which  appears  to  be 
furnished,  in  a  great  measure,  by  their  power  of 
decomposing  water.     Hydrogen  can  be  obtained 


54  THE    EARTHS. 

from  plants  by  distillation,  but  in  the  decomposition 
of  dead  vegetables  it  unites  either  with  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air  to  form  water,  or  it  is  exhaled  in 
union  with  carbon  as  carburetted  hydrogen." — 
ChaptaL 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE    EARTHS. 

1.  "  Nearly  all  vegetables  derive  their  support 
from  the  earth.  As  the  earth  furnishes  the  great- 
est number  of  plants,  its  influence  upon  vegetation 
is  of  the  greatest  consequence  ;  yet  this  subject  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  things  of  which  we  can 
treat. 

2.  "  Plants  are  not,  like  animals,  endowed  with 
the  power  of  moving  about  from  place  to  place  ; 
but  are  always  fixed  to  a  limited  portion  of  the 
sjil.  They  depend  upon  the  small  space  which 
they  occupy  for  the  supply  of  their  wants.  They 
can  draw  food  only  from  those  portions  of  the 
surrounding  air,  earth,  and  water  that  come  next 
to  them. 

3.  "  It  is  necessary,  then,  that  plants  should  find, 
immediately  around  them,  the  nourishing  princi- 
ples necessary  for  their  growth.  They  should  be 
able  to  extend  their  roots,  in  order  to  draw  from 
the  soil  its  nutritive  juices ;  and  to  fasten  them- 
selves in  the  earth,  so  as  to  be  secure  from  being 
dried  up  by  heat,  or  uprooted  by  the  winds.     It 


MOULD.  55 

is  important,  men,  that  we  examine  the  nature 
of  earths,  and  the  differences  which  exist  among 
them."* 

MOULD. 

4.  All  plants,  when  dead,  are  more  or  less 
readily  decomposed  ;  that  is,  they  separate  into 
their  original  parts.  This  change  is  greatly  hast- 
ened and  helped  by  the  air  and  heat.  As  dead 
plants  are  the  principal  food  of  living  plants,  it  is 
very  important  for  us  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  products  of  vegetable  decomposition. 

5.  This  falling  to  pieces,  or  decomposition,  of 
plants,  is  most  rapid  when  they  are  collected  in 
heaps.  When  large  masses  of  vegetables  are  in 
a  state  of  fermentation,  heat  is  always  produced ; 
but  if  they  have  been  dried,  it  is  important  to  col- 
lect them  into  heaps,  and  moisten  them  slightly. 

6.  Sometimes  the  heat,  in  this  case,  is  so  great 
as  to  cause  the  heap  to  take  fire ;  this  occurs 
when  hay  is  stacked  without  being  sufficiently 
dry,  or  when  rope,  hemp,  or  flax  is  piled  up  wet. 
When  all  the  parts  o(  a  plant  are  decomposed, 
there  is  left  a  substance  of  a  brown  colour,  called 
mould.  This  mould  contains  salts,  oils,  and  some 
of  the  earths. 

7.  The  dying  sod  of  a  summer  fallow  is  a 
mould ;  and,  as  has  been  said,  this  mould  is  pro- 
duced by  the  fermentation  of  vegetable  matter. 
Now,  farmers  frequently  make  a  great  mistake  in 
what  is  called  "  summer  fallowing  "  When  the  sod 
is  rotting,  there  is  a  constant  escape  of  nourish- 

*  Chaptal's  Agricultural  Chyinistry. 


5Q  HOW    TILLABLE    LANDS    ARE    MADE. 

ing  matter.  The  crop  ought  to  have  this  esca- 
ping nutriment ;  therefore  grain  should  always  be 
growing  while  the  sod  is  fermenting,  or  decom- 
posing. 

8.  Land  owes  its  fertility  mostly,  if  not  wholly, 
to  the  presence  of  ingredients  found  in  mould,  or 
to  qualities  similar  to  those  in  mould.  These  in- 
gredients are  furnished  by  manures,  and  by  the  de- 
c3mposition  of  plants.  But  each  crop  takes  away 
s  )me  of  these  ingredients,  and  a  part  is  washed 
a  yay  by  the  rains. 

9.  Thus  the  soil  is  deprived  by  degrees  of  its 
nutritive  qualities,  till  at  length  nothing  remains 
bit  a  few  bare  earths.  These,  being  deprived  of 
their  nourishing  juices,  are  completely  barren. 
To  restore  its  fertility,  the  land  must  be  manured 
afresh,  after  having  yielded  several  crops. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

HOW  TILLABLE  LANDS  AKE  MADE. 

1.  Arable  lands  are  made,  almost  entirely,  by 
tne  decomposition  of  the  rocks  which  form  the 
basis  of  our  globe.  The  water  which  flows  in 
torrents  from  the  tops  of  the  mountains  washes 
away  their  sides,  till  gravel,  sand,  and  mineral  slime 
are  formed  and  deposited  in  the  valleys  below. 

2.  The  number  and  size  of  the  stones  found 
in  the  valleys  depend  upon  the  distance  of  the 
mountains  whence  the  stones  were  torn,  upon  the 


HOW    TILLABLE    LANDS    ARE   MADE.  57 

harder  or  softer  character  of  the  rocks  in  the  moun- 
tain, and  upon  the  force  of  the  currents  of  water 
which  went  from  the  hills  to  the  valleys. 

3.  Nearly  all  our  rich  valleys  were  formed  from 
the  rocks  in  the  mountains,  and  we  can  know  the 
nature  of  the  soils  by  examining  the  elevated  lands 
and  mountains  in  the  vicinity.  The  deposites 
from  mountains  whose  rocks  are  made  up  of 
quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica,  form  soils  mixed  with 
silicia,  alumine,  lime,  magnesia,  and  oxyd  of  iron. 

4.  It  would,  however,  be  wrong  to  suppose  that 
the  lands  formed  by  the  waste  of  mountains  are, 
throughout,  of  the  same  nature  as  the  rocks  from 
which  they  have  been  produced.  The  heavier 
particles  are  dropped  first,  nearest  the  mountain, 
while  the  lighter  elements,  and  those  that  have 
more  afiinity  for  water,  are  carried  farther. 

5.  Rivers  coming  from  different  parts,  and  uni- 
ting, make  deposites  which  form  a  soil,  having 
very  dissimilar  ingredients.  It  frequently  happens 
that  this  mixture  of  the  mud  of  two  rivers  pro- 
duces a  soil  more  fertile  than  would  be  made  by 
either  of  the  rivers  singly  ;  the  qualities  of  the  one 
serving  to  correct  the  deficiencies  of  the  other. 

6.  The  soils  found  on  the  tops  and  sides  of 
mountains  must  have  been  formed,  after  a  lapse 
of  many  ages,  by  the  constant  action  of  the  air, 
water,  and  heat.  These  powerful  chymical  agents 
soften  and  pulverize  the  rocky  surface.  Those 
rocks  which  have  a  strong  afiinity  for  air  and  wa- 
ter will  necessarily  fall  to  pieces  before  those  that 
have  less  affinity, 

7.  As  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  rock  is  furrowed 
and  the  mosses  have  fastened  themselves   upon 


58  COMPOSITION    OP    ARABLE    LANDS. 

it,  the  plants  that  require  but  little  nourishment 
take  root  and  decay  there  in  their  turn.  Each  suc- 
cessive decay  adds  something  to  the  top  of  the 
rock,  till  a  soil  is  produced  fit  for  cultivation. 

8.  Man,  also,  has  not  only  changed  the  nature 
of  soils,  but  he  has  made  some  of  the  most  produc- 
tive. By  obtaining  and  mixing  vegetable  mould, 
minerals,  clays,  (fcc,  he  has  made  many  a  barren 
spot  to  blossom  and  yield  an  abundant  harvest. 
If  we  would  observe  the  ingredients  which  are 
found  in  our  most  fertile  lands,  we  would  be  able, 
not  only  to  improve  our  farms,  but  to  make  them 
larger. 

9.  Other  causes  than  those  we  have  mentioned 
have  produced  arable  lands.  The  numerous  lakes 
which  have  disappeared ;  the  eruption  of  volca- 
noes ;  the  overflowings  of  the  seas ;  the  bony  re- 
mains of  animals,  and  the  decay  of  vegetables 
buried  in  the  ground,  have  formed  soils  of  all  char- 
acters. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

COMPOSITION    OF    ARABLE    LANDS. 

1.  The  best  basis  for  good  lands  is  a  mixture  of 
lime,  silicia,  and  alumine.  To  make  the  best  lands, 
these  desirable  qualities  should  be  mixed  in  true 
proportions.  Lands  may  have  too  much  even  of  a 
good  ingredient ;  in  such  cases  some  other  neces- 
sary qualities  are  excluded. 


COMPOSITION    OF  ARABLE    LANDS.  69 

2.  We  should  find  out  the  qualities  of  the  rich 
and  poor  lands,  that  we  may  be  able  to  correct  the 
faults  of  the  one  by  the  qualities  of  the  other, 
Every  farmer  knows  when  a  field  is  worn  out, 
and,  also,  when  it  is  in  what  he  calls  "  good  or- 
der." But  does  he  find  out  the  absent  qualities  of 
the  reduced  land  1  Does  he  know  the  qualities  he 
adds  when  he  improves  the  poor  land  ? 

3.  An  excellent  soil  for  wheat  is  of  this  charac- 
ter: — 

Parts. 

Carbonate  of  lime 28 

Silicia 32 

Alumine '-^6 

Animal  or  vegetable  matter  and  moisture   .     .  11 

4.  In  the  best  earths  for  tillage  have  been  foV^d 
the  following  qualities  : — 

Parts. 

Silicious  gravel 32 

Calcareous  gravel 11 

Silicia 10 

Carbonate  of  lime 19 

Alumine 21 

Vegetable  remains 7 

5.  In  the  best  earths  there  is  a  large  proportion 
of  gravel.  This  renders  the  soil  light  and  easily 
worked,  and  helps  the  passing  off  of  heavy  rains. 
Sandy  soils  are  frequently  too  open,  containing 
too  much  gravel.  They  should  be  mixed  with 
clay,  that  they  may  hold  the  water.  Clay  lands 
hold  the  water  too  long,  and  should  be  mixed  with 
sand  that  the  water  may  more  readily  pass  off. 


60  VEGETABLE    NUTRIMENT. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

VEGETABLE    NUTRIMENT. 

1.  The  atmosphere,  it  has  been  seen,  furnishes 
plants  with  two  kinds  of  food.  One  of  thegi  is 
carbonic  acid  and  the  other  oxygen.  The  air, 
also,  carries  in  its  bosom  a  large  quantity  of 
water,  in  the  form  of  vapour.  The  coolness  of 
the  night  makes  this  vapour  fall  to  the  earth,  and 
produces  what  we  call  the  dew. 

2.  The  sun  comes  again  in  the  morning  and 
changes  these  drops  of  water  into  vapour,  which 
will  again  at  night  fall  on  the  plants.  Thus  the 
plants  are  moistened  every  twenty-four  hours  by 
the  water  in  the  air.  Were  it  not  for  this,  the 
heat  of  the  sun  would  dry  up  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. 

3.  When  water  ascends  from  the  earth,  in  the 
form  of  vapour,  it  carries  along  with  it  fine  parts  of 
decaying  vegetables  and  animals.  These  putrid 
substances  in  the  air  are  injurious  to  men  and 
animals,  but  supply  the  best  of  food  for  plants.  In 
order  to  have  the  most  benefit  from  the  dews,  the 
soil  should  contain  certain  qualities  which  it  does 
not  always  possess. 

4.  If  the  soil  is  dry  and  hard  the  dew  does  not 
enter  into  and  moisten  it.  The  dew  in  this  case 
only  moistens  the  leaves  of  the  plants — the  roots 
receive  no  benefit.  It  is  necessary  in  this  case 
to  soften  the  earth,  that  the  dews  and  rains  may 


VEGETABLE    NUTRIMENT,  61 

reach  the  roots.  For  this  reason  we  mellow  the 
ground  between  the  rows  of  corn,  and  other  crops 
raised  in  rows. 

5.  Pulling  up  the  weeds  that  stand  in  the  hill 
loosens  the  earth  next  to  the  roots  and  stalks, 
and  also  prevents  the  corn  from  being  choked- 
This  little  attention  should  always  be  given,  as  it 
enables  the  dew  to  fall  directly  on  the  roots  of  the 
plants. 

6.  It  is  highly  important  for  us  to  ascertain  the 
power  the  soil  has  of  drawing  in  the  dew  from 
the  air  ;  and  also  the  strength  of  the  soil  in  re- 
taining the  dew.  Every  farmer  may  obtain  this 
knowledge.  He  has  only  to  dry  thoroughly  an 
equal  quantity  of  two  separate  soils,  and  to  weigh 
them  night  and  morning  for  several  days,  and  he 
can  form  an  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  moisture 
which  each  has  drawn  in  during  the  night. 

7.  In  this  experiment  he  should  spread  each 
portion  of  earth  over  an  equal  quantity  of  surface. 
It  is  seen  that  the  air  and  the  earth  are  powerful 
agents  in  promoting  vegetation.  They  act  upon 
plants  directly  by  their  own  principles  ;  and  they 
act  as  helps  by  conveying  to  the  organs  of  plants 
such  substances  as  are  necessary  for  their  sup- 
port. 

8.  Although  food  is  brought  to  the  plants,  it  is 
heat  alone  that  invigorates  the  organs,  and  enables 
them  to  take  in  the  nutriment.  So  it  is  with  many 
animals  ;  they  are  benumbed  by  cold,  and  animated 
by  heat.  All  soils  do  not  receive  and  retain  heat 
alike.  Some  are  always  wet  and  cold,  others  al- 
ways dry  and  parched. 


62  MIXED    EARTHS. 

9.  Cold,  heavy  lands  are  warmed  by  long  ma- 
nure, lime,  &c. ;  while  dry,  hot  soils  are  moistened 
and  improved  by  clay,  marl,  and  plaster.  The 
manure  from  the  sheep  and  horse  is  more  heating 
in  its  action  tha*  that  of  cows. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PROPERTIES    OF    MIXED    EARTHS,  AND    THEIR    CULTI- 
VATION. 

1.  Soils  should  vary  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  plants  to  be  cultivated  in  them.  Some  prefer 
a  porous,  dry,  and  arid  soil ;  others  flourish  only 
in  land  constantly  moist.  There  are  some  that 
require  a  great  degree  of  heat,  others  vegetate  in 
the  midst  of  snows. 

2.  These  peculiar  tastes  of  plants  ought  to  be 
known  to  the  farmer  :  then  he  may  select  for  each 
one  the  soil  best  adapted  to  it.  Or,  he  may  change 
the  characters  of  those  he  possesses,  so  as  to  af- 
ford to  each  plant  the  soil  most  congenial  to  it. 

3.  For  a  plant  to  flourish  in  a  soil,  it  is  not 
enough  that  the  earths  composing  it  are  of  the 
right  kind.  It  is  necessary  to  unite  other  circum- 
stances which  are  not  always  to  be  met  with.  For 
example,  the  arable  soils  which  lie  upon  rocks 
vary  considerably  in  depth.  The  thickness  of  this, 
bed  of  soil  not  only  exerts  an  influence  upon  the 
powers  of  vegetation,  but  determines  the  kind  of 
plant  which  can  be  raised  on  it. 


MIXED    EARTHS.  63 

4.  The  bed  of  earth  ought  to  be  from  ten  to 
twelve  inches  in  depth  for  grain,  and  much  more 
than  that  for  clover.  For  trees  it  must  be  much 
deeper  than  for  grain  or  clover,  or  their  roots,  run- 
ning to  no  depth,  will  extend  their  shoots  to  a  great 
distance,  and  thus  exhaust  the  strength  of  a  large 
portion  of  soil. 

5.  It  makes  a  great  difference  of  what  substance 
the  substratum  of  the  beds  of  earth  is  composed. 
If  the  substratum  be  of  sand,  the  soil  above  will 
dry  more  quickly  than  if  it  were  of  marl  or  clay. 
A  bed  of  clay  under  one  of  sand  contributes  to  its 
fertility  by  retaining  the  water  which  easily  filters 
through  the  last,  and  thus  preserving  its  moisture. 

6.  But  if  the  water  collected  upon  the  clay 
moisten  too  long  a  time  the  roots  of  the  plants, 
they  languish.  Roots  may  be  exposed  to  living, 
flowing  water,  without  being  injured  by  it;  but 
stagnant  water  is  always  hurtful,  and  for  the  most 
part  destructive  to  them.  Hence,  farmers  should 
drain  their  fields  and  meadows.  Draining,  espe- 
cially under  draining,  should  be  more  attended  to 
than  it  has  been. 

7.  In  lands  that  are  too  moist,  it  is  good  to 
form  beds  of  pebble  stones,  upon  which  a  layer 
of  mould  should  be  placed.  Excellent  meadows 
are  made  in  this  way,  upon  land  which  had  never 
before  produced  anything  but  rushes.  A  clayey 
or  marly  soil  resting  upon  a  bed  of  porous  rock 
is  more  fertile  than  one  which  rests  upon  a  hard 
rock. 

8.  The  reason  of  this  is  very  simple.  In  the 
first  case  the  water  filters  through  the  rock,  and 
escapes ;  in  the  second,  it  remains  stagnant,  ren- 


64  MIXED    EARTHS. 

dering  tlie  soil  pasty,  and  possessing  none  of  the 
requisites  for  vegetation.  Much  of  the  land  in  this 
country  is  spoiled  by  letting  the  water  stand  on  it 
till  not  only  all  vegetation  is  killed,  but  it  is  ren- 
dered wholly  unfit  for  tillage. 

9.  Inclined  lands,  where  the  slope  is  rapid,  and 
the  soil  light  and  open,  are  liable  to  have  the  ma- 
nures carried  off  by  the  heavy  rains.  Even  the 
soil  is  sometimes  very  much  gullied.  This  fre- 
quently happens  to  lands  cultivated  upon  the  sides 
of  mountains,  till  they  become  completely  barren. 
Hence,  we  would  conclude  that  it  is  unwise  to  clear 
up  the  sides  of  high  hills,  as  much  as  is  sometimes 
done.  Furrows  should  never  be  left  running  up 
and  down  the  hill,  as  this  makes  a  channel  for  the 
water. 

10.  Thorough  ploughing  contributes  largely  to 
the  fertility  of  lands.  But  in  order  that  it  may 
produce  its  best  effects,  it  is  necessary  to  have  re- 
gard to  some  circumstances  which  are  not  gener- 
ally attended  to.  Ploughing  divides  and  softens 
the  soil — mixes  thoroughly  its  constituent  princi- 
ples— destroys  weeds — and  frees  the  ground  from 
those  insects  which  often  abound  in  it. 

11.  The  ploughings  should  be  more  numerous, 
and  conducted  with  more  care,  upon  a  heavy  soil 
than  upon  one  that  is  light  and  porous.  Clayed 
soils  should  be  ploughed  only  when  dry  ;  when 
they  have  imbibed  water  they  form  a  soft  paste, 
which  should  not  be  worked.  Sandy  and  calca-  " 
reous  lands  may  be  ploughed  at  all  times. 

12.  Deep  ploughings  are  very  advantageous  to 
lands,  which  are  of  the  same  nature  to  a  consider- 
able  depth.     For   those  lower  parts  of  the   soil 


THE    NATUIIE    OF    MANURES.  66 

which  have  become  filled  with  the  manures,  that 
the  rains  have  carried  down  below  the  surface, 
are  thus  thrown  up,  to  contribute  to  the  nourish- 
ment of  vegetation. 

13.  Deep  ploughings  are  also  useful  in  those 
lands  where  the  upper  layer  is  too  clayey  and 
compact,  and  rests  upon  a  bed  of  sand  and  car- 
bonate of  lime.  By  ploughing  deep,  the  sand  or 
lime  is  mixed  with  the  clay  above,  rendering  it 
more  fertile  than  it  could  be  made  by  any  other 
means.  An  equally  good  result  is  obtained  from 
deep  ploughing  in  the  opposite  case,  that  is,  when 
a  soil,  too  sandy  or  calcareous,  rests  upon  an  argil- 
laceous bed. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE  NATURE  OF  MANURES. VARIETIES. 

1.  Whatever  is  drawn  in  by  the  organs  of 
plants  and  contributes  to  their  growth,  may  be 
called  manure.  The  three  kingdoms  of  nature 
furnish  substances  for  manures.  Those  generally 
used  are  decomposed  vegetables  and  some  ani- 
mal matters.  Salts  serve  principally  to  stimulate 
plants ;  and  hence,  we  have  substances  that  may 
be  called  stimulants,  and  other  substances  that  act 
directly  as  the  nourishers  of  plants. 

2.  The  nutritive  manures  contain  parts  which, 
when  dissolved  in  water,  are  capable  of  entering 
vno  the  roots,  stalks,  and  leaves  of  the  plants.     Tt 

E 


66  THE    -NATURE    OF    MANURES. 

is  generally  thought  best  to  let  these  substances 
putrify  or  ferment ;  for  this  separates  the  jmrts^ 
and  makes  them  more  easily  dissolved  in  water. 

3.  When  fermentation  is  taking  place,  the  gases, 
such  as  carbonic  acid,  carburetted  hydrogen,  azote, 
and  ammonia,  are  produced,  and  furnish  food 
for  plants.  This  will  show  the  wisdom  of  having 
a  crop  growing  while  the  sod  is  rotting,  or,  in 
other  words,  fermenthig.  And  this  shows  summer 
fallowing  to  be  a  very  bad  practice;  as  in  this 
case  all  the  gases  go  off  into  the  air  without  having 
any  plants  to  feed. 

4.  Fermentation  sliould  not  go  too  far  m  the 
barnyard  or  in  the  heap.  If  it  does,  there  is 
nothing  left  but  some  fixed  salts,  niixed  with  those 
earths  and  juices  which  have  resisted  its  action. 
It  also  permits  the  gases  we  have  mentioned, 
which  are  the  life  of  plants,  to  escape  and  waste 
in  the  air.  Fermentation,  to  a  great  degree, 
should  take  place  in  the  soil  we  wish  to  raise  the 
grain  from. 

5.  The  ver}'  best  kind  of  manure  is  usually 
lost  in  this  country.  In  England  and  France  the 
moisture  from  the  stables  is  carefully  conducted 
into  reservoirs,  made  and  placed  for  the  purpose. 
The  liquid  is  taken  out  of  these  vats,  and  thrown 
over  straw,  dry  leaves,  weeds,  <fec.  In  this  way 
it  is  saved,  and  made  to  assist  fermentation.  In 
this  country  we  either  let  it  soak  into  the  ground, 
or  run  off  into  useless,  uncultivated  places. 

6.  Many  farmers  heap  up,  in  large  piles,  the 
collections  of  the  barnyard,  and  allow  them  to 
rot  uncovered  and  exposed  to  the  changes  of  the 
weather.     This   is  wrong.     These  heaps  should 


IHE    NATURE    OF    MANURES.  67 

be  covered  by  a  slight  roof  of  straw  or  boards,  to 
protect  them  from  the  rain.  Separate  layers 
should  be  formed  of  each  clearing  of  the  stables, 
cowhouse,  and  sheep  pens. 

7.  These  layers  should  be  from  a  foot  and  a 
half  to  two  feet  in  thickness ;  and  when  the  heat 
produced  in  them  by  fermentation  rises  in  the 
centre  to  more  than  95^,  or  when  the  mass  begins 
to  smoke,  it  should  be  turned  to  prevent  decompo- 
sition from  going  too  far.  As  the  manure  lies  in 
yards,  in  heaps  and  thin  layers,  the  fermentation 
is  very  unequal.  Some  parts  have  undergone  too 
much  decomposition  and  some  not  enough. 

8.  Fermentation  should  go  on  alike  in  the  whole 
mass,  and  be  arrested  as  soon  as  the  straw  begins 
to  turn  brown.  To  do  this,  the  mass  may  be 
spread,  or  carried  into  the  fields,  to  be  immediately 
mixed  with  the  soil.  Or,  we  may  mix  with  it 
mould,  plaster,  muck,  straw,  dry  leaves,  &;c.,  while 
lying  in  the  yard  or  in  heaps. 

9.  There  has  been  much  said  of  late  on  the 
subject  of  fermentation.  Some  contending  that 
the  manure  should  be  considerably  rotted,  and 
others  that  a  very  little  fermentation  is  much  better. 
Before  deciding  upon  this  question  we  should  have 
reference  to  the  soil  to  be  manured.  If  this  be 
compact,  clayey,  and  cold,  it  is  better  that  fermen- 
tation have  taken  place  but  slightly. 

10.  Unfermented.  manures  soften  and  divide 
hard  soils,  and  render  them  open  to  the  air  and 
water ;  and  they  also,  while  undergoing  fermenta- 
tion, lighten  and  warm  the  earth.  But  if  the  soil 
be  light,  warm,  and  porous,  the  fermented  manure 
is  preferable,  because   it  gives  out   less  heat,  and 


68  THE    NATURE    OF    MAMRES. 

instead  of  opening  the  earth,  already  too  open,  it 
makes  it  more  compact.  Experience  has  made 
these  facts  known  to  all  ohserving  farmers. 

11.  When  we  wish  to  apply  manure  to  any  par- 
ticular soil,  we  should  ascertain  the  peculiar  quali- 
ties of  that  soil,  and  then  select  the  kind  of  manure 
adapted.  Animals  bearing  wool  furnish  the  warm- 
est manures  ;  these  may  be  mixed  with  ihe  coldest 
soils.  The  next  warmest  is  made  by  horses ; 
while  that  of  cows  and  oxen  contains  the  least 
heat  of  any.  'ihe  latter  is  good  for  hot,  sandy 
land. 

12.  Bones  and  horn  scrapings  have  become  in 
the  hands  of  farmers  powerful  agents  in  fertilizing 
the  soil.  These  parts  of  animals  are  principally 
composed  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  gelatine. 
Bones  and  horns  should  be  ground  or  pounded 
fine,  before  mixing  them  with  the  soil.  Farmers 
lose  much  by  not  attending  to  these  parts  of  ani- 
mals. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE    NATURE    OF    MANURES. — CONTINUED. 

1.  The  excrement  of  birds  is  another  very  val- 
uable manure  ;  better  than  that  of  quadrupeds,  for 
birds  digest  their  food  more  thoroughly.  It  also 
contains  more  animal  matter,  and  is  richer  in 
salts.  This  article  is  one  of  commerce  between 
some  of  the  isles  of  the  Pacific  and  South  Amer- 


THK    NATURE    OF    MAiNURES.  69 

ica.  Farmers  in  the  United  States  neglect  this 
manure  entirely.  The  piles  under  the  henroosts 
remain  unseemly  and  useless  from  year  to  year. 

2.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  has  proved  by  experi- 
ments that  rye,  wheat,  barley,  and  oat  straw  have 
but  two  per  cent,  of  manure  in  them.  That  is, 
only  two  pounds  of  manure  in  one  hundred  pounds 
of  straw.  The  ninety-eight  pounds  consists  en- 
tirely of  fibre,  which  is  a  long  time  in  decompo- 
sing. 

3.  In  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom,  there  is  not 
a  substance  that  affords  so  little  aliment  for  plants 
or  animals  as  the  dry  straw  of  grain.  If  it  is 
thrown  into  the  yard  to  soak  up  the  moisture  from 
the  cattle,  to  mix  with  the  excrement  and  to  fer- 
ment, in  this  condition  it  increases  largely  the 
quantity  of  manure.  In  this  way  it  should  always 
be  applied. 

4.  Weeds,  leaves  of  trees,  and  all  the  succulent 
plants  which  grow  so  abundantly  in  ditches  and 
waste  lands,  under  fences,  and  by  the  roadside,  if 
cut  when  in  Jlowtr,  and  slightly  fermented^  furnish 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  times  more  manure 
than  straw  does.  These  weeds  and  plants,  care- 
fully collected,  ftirnish  to  the  farmer  an  immense 
resource  for  enriching  his  lands. 

5.  If  the  farmer  would  cut  these  weeds  for  this 
purpose  he  would  be  a  double  gainer ;  for  in  this 
way  he  would  prevent  the  foul  seed  from  spreading 
over  his  land.  It  is  surprising  that  agricidturists 
will  let  the  foul  plants  go  to  seed,  undisturbed, 
from  year  to  year.  The  farm  soon  becomes  full 
of  poisonous  plants,  which  choke  the  crops  and 
draw  up  all  the  strength  of  the  soil. 


70  THE    NATURE    OF    MANURES. 

6.  Farmers  should  make  a  small  excavation, 
near  a  stream  of  water,  and  into  this  hole  throw 
all  the  vveedsj  coarse  grass,  leaves,  potato  topSy 
(fee,  which  may  be  gathered  in  summer.  By  let- 
ting a  little  water  to  this  collection,  the  whole  heap 
would  soon  ferment  enough  to  make  excellent  ma- 
niu-e.  How  much  farmers  lose  by  not  attending 
to  this  one  simple  thing  ! ! 

7.  There  is  another  source  of  manure  generally 
overlooked.  The  sides  of  the  highway  soon  be- 
come covered  with  a  rich  sod,  made  by  the  litter 
of  hogs,  sheep,  and  cattle,  which  run  in  the  road. 
This  sod  should  every  two  or  three  years  be  car- 
ried into  the  fields  and  mixed  with  the  soil.  It 
would  be  a  great  addition  to  the  manure  made  on 
the  farm. 

8.  There  is  a  species  of  manure  called  compost. 
This  is  made  by  arranging  beds  of  different  kinds 
of  manure  one  above  another,  taking  care  to  make 
such  a  mixture  as  is  suited  to  the  soil  to  be  en- 
riched by  it.  Suppose  we  wish  to  form  a  compost 
for  a  clayey,  stiff  soil. 

9.  The  first  bed  must  be  made  of  plaster,  grav- 
el, or  mortar  rubbish ;  the  second  of  the  litter  and 
excrements  of  horses,  or  sheep ;  the  third  of 
sweepings  of  yards,  paths,  barns,  and  of  lean  marl, 
dry  and  calcareous ;  of  muck  from  swamps ;  the 
remains  of  hay,  straw,  &:c. ;  and  all  this  in  its  turn 
must  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  the  same  mate- 
rials as  the  first. 

10.  Fermentation  will  take  place  in  the  beds  of 
dung,  and  the  liquor  flowing  from  these  will  min- 
gle with  the  materials  of  the  other  layers.  When 
the  whole  mass  exhibits  the  signs  of  a  high  heat 


STIMULATING    MANURES.  71 

and  a  brown  colour,  it  must  be  carried  into  the 
fields.  Care  must  be  taken  to  mix  well  the  sub- 
stances composing  the  different  layers. 

11.  If  the  compost  be  designed  to  manure  a 
light,  porous,  and  calcareous  soil,  it  must  be  formed 
of  materials  of  a  very  different  character.  In  this 
case  it  is  necessary  that  argillaceous  principles 
should  prevail. 

1 2.  The  materials  must  be  compact,  the  dung  of 
the  least  heating  kind,  and  the  fermentation  con- 
tinued till  the  ingredients  form  a  yielding  and  glu- 
tinous paste.  The  earths  must  be  clayey,  half 
baked  and  pounded,  or  consisting  of  fat  and  argil- 
laceous marl  and  the  mud  from  low  places.  Of 
these  all  the  layers  must  be  formed. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

STIMULATING    MANURES LIME,     PLASTER,    ASHES^ 

AND    MARL. 

1.  "  Lime  is  familiarly  known  to  farmers  by  the 
same  name  that  is  generally  used  by  chymists. 
It  is  obtained  by  the  aid  of  heat  from  rocks  which 
go  by  the  name  of  limestones.  These  are  combi- 
nations of  lime  with  carbonic  acid,  which  is  fixed 
in  them  by  chymical  attraction,  but  which,  when 
driven  off  by  heat,  takes  the  same  form  as  the  air 
of  the  atmosphere,  or  becomes  a  gas.  This  gas 
from  this  circumstance  has  been  called  Jxed  air^ 


72  STIMULATING   MANURES. 

by  which  name  it  is  often  known  as  causing  the 
sparkling  and  froth  of  cider  and  beer. 

2.  The  principal  part  of  limestone  i*  therefore 
called  by  chymists  carbonate  of  lime.  Carbonate 
of  lime  is  also  found  in  shells,  both  those  of  living 
animals  and  those  which  exist  in  the  ground  in  a 
fossil  state.  The  former  is  mixed  with  animal 
matter,  which  is  more  or  less  separated  from  the 
latter,  according  to  the  time  livhich  has  elapsed 
since  the  death  of  the  shell  fish. 

3.  Marl,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  used 
by  chymists,  is  a  mixture  of  clay  with  carbonate 
of  lime.  The  English  writers  on  agriculture  have 
not  observed  this  distinction,  and  the  term  is 
sometimes  applied  by  them  to  a  decomposed  chalk, 
which  may  contain  little  or  no  clay  ;  and  some- 
times to  the  clay,  which  contains  no  carbonate  of 
lime. 

4.  In  fact,  the  name  is  frequently  applied  by 
them  to  any  earthy  matter  found  below  the  vegeta- 
ble soil  which  is  capable  of  increasing  its  fertility. 
From  this  misapprehension,  the  substances  which, 
go  by  the  name  of  marl  in  New-Jersey,  Mary- 
land, and  Virginia,  do  not  correspond  with  the 
chymical  definition,  but  are  generally  beds  of  fossil 
shells,  mixed  in  various  proportions  with  earthy 
and  saline  matters  of  various  kinds. 

5.  Lime  is  a  substance  very  different  in  its  char- 
acter from  the  two  earths  of  which  we  have  pre- 
viously spoken.  When  prepared  by  heat  from  any 
of  the  original  forms  of  its  carbonate,  it  retains 
their  shape  unaltered,  but  may  have  its  colour 
changed,  and  always  loses  considerable  in  weight. 

6.  It  13  now  acrid,  caustic,  and  corrosive,  and 


STIMULATING     MANURES.  73 

has  some  properties  in  common  with  potash,  which 
are  therefore  alkaline.  Of  these  the  most  impor- 
tant is,  that  it  unites  with  acids  to  form  compounds 
included  in  the  general  class  of  salts. 

7.  Of  the  salts  of  lime,  which  are  important  to 
the  farmer,  the  three  principal  are  :  the  carbonate, 
which,  as  we  have  stated,  is  found  in  limestone, 
chalk,  shells,  and  marl ;  the  sulphate,  in  which 
lime  is  combined  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  which, 
in  combination  witli  water,  is  the  substance  so  well 
known  to  our  farmers  under  the  name  of  plaster  of 
Paris,  or  less  familiarly  by  that  of  gypsum  ;  the 
phosphate,  which  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the 
bones  of  animals. 

8.  Lime,  when  exposed  to  air,  attracts  carbonic 
•  acid,  which  is  always  to  be  found  in  the  atmo- 
sphere ;  it  thus  passes  back  to  the  state  of  carbon- 
ate, but  in  so  doing  gradually  falls  to  powder,  and 
is  then  said  to  be  air  slacked.  U  slacked  with 
water,  it  also  falls  to  a  powder,  which  still  retains 
the  caustic  character  of  the  burnt  lime  ;  but  this 
powder,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  unites  with  car- 
bonic acid  more  rapidly  than  when  in  mass. 

9.  Three  principal  modes  of  proceeding  are  in 
use  for  applying  lime.  The  lirst  is  the  most  sim- 
ple, and  is  the  most  general  wherever  lime  is  ob- 
tained cheaply,  and  where  culture  is  but  little  ad- 
vanced in  perfection,  and  manual  labour  is  dear. 
This  is  putting  the  lime  [the  burned  limestone]  im- 
mediately on  the  ground,  in  little  heaps  at  twenty 
feet,  average  distance,  and  each  heap  containing, 
according  to  the  rate  of  liming,  from  a  cubic  foot 

I  of  the    stone    to   half  that   quantity.      When  the 
lime  has  been  slacked  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and 


74  STIMULATING    MANURES. 

hrts  Tallen  into  powder,  it  is  spread  on  the  surface 
so  as  to  be  equally  divided. 

10.  The  second  mode  differs  from  the  first  in 
this  respect :  the  heaps  of  stone  are  covered  with 
a  coat  of  earth,  about  six  inches  thick,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  heap,  and  this  coat  is  equal  to 
five  or  six  times  the  bulk  of  the  lime.  When  the 
lime  begins  to  swell,  by  slacking,  the  cracks  and 
openings  in  the  heap  are  filled  with  earth :  and 
when  the  lime  is  reduced  to  powder,  each  heap  is 
worked  over,  so  as  to  mix  thoroughly  the  lime  and 
the  earth.  If  nothing  hurries  the  labour,  this  last 
operation  is  repeated  at  the  end  of  fifteen  days — 
and  then,  after  waiting  two  weeks  more,  the  mix- 
ture is  spread  over  the  soil. 

11.  The  third  process,  which  is  adopted  where 
culture  is  more  perfect  and  lime  is  dear,  and 
which  combines  all  the  advantages  of  liming, 
without  offering  any  of  its  inconveniences,  consists 
in  making  compost  heaps  of  lime  and  earth  or 
mould.  For  tliis,  there  is  first  made  a  bed  of  earth, 
mould  or  turf,  of  a  foot  or  thereabout  in  thickness. 
The  clods  are  chopped  down,  and  there  is  spread 
over  a  layer  of  unslacked  lime,  of  a  hectolitre  for 
the  twenty  cubic  feet,  or  a  ton  to  the  forty-five 
cubic  feet  of  earth. 

12.  Upon  this  lime  is  placed  another  layer  of 
earth,  equal  in  thickness  to  the  first ;  then  a  sec- 
ond layer  of  lime  ;  and  then  the  heap  is  finished 
by  a  third  layer  of  earth.  If  the  earth  is  moist, 
and  the  lime  recently  burned,  eight  or  ten  days 
will  sufiice  to  slack  it  completely.  Then  the  heap 
is  cut  down  and  well  mixed — and  this  operation  is 
repeated  afterward  before  using  the  manure,  which 


STIMULATliNG    MANUREiJ.  75 

is  delayed  as  long  as  possible,  because  the  effect 
on  the  soil  is  increased  with  the  age  of  the  com- 
post ;  and  especially  if  it  has  been  made  with 
earth  containing  much  vegetable  mould. 

13.  This  method  is  the  one  most  used  in  Belgi- 
um and  Flanders  :  it  is  becoming  almost  the  exclu- 
sive practice  in  Normandy  :  it  is  the  only  practice, 
and  followed  with  the  greatest  success,  in  La 
Sarthe.  Lime  in  compost  is  never  injurious  to  the 
soil.  Light  soils,  sandy  or  gravelly,  are  not  tired 
by  repetitions  of  this  compost.  No  coimtry  or  au- 
thor charges  lime,  used  in  this  way,  with  having 
been  injurious  to  the  soil.  In  short,  this  seems  the 
must  sure,  the  jnost  useful,  and  the  least  expensive 
mode  of  applying  lime  as  manure. 

14.  Lime  is  the  life  of  wheat,  and  should  be 
used  on  land  in  this  country  more  generally  than 
it  has  been.  We  would  .recommend,  to  most  farm- 
ers, the  second  method  mentioned  above,  of  apply- 
ing it  to  the  soil. 

1 5.  Plaster  is  profitably  and  extensively  used  in 
this  country.  On  the  sandy  lands,  the  white  or 
Nova  Scotia  plaster  is  thought  best ;  but  used  on 
the  loamy,  clayey  soils,  the  western  plaster  is  sup- 
posed to  be  equally  good,  it  not  better.  Plaster, 
or  gj'^psum,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  does  not  help 
low  moist  lands  as  much  as  it  does  dry  uplands. 
On  soil  of  the  latter  kind,  it  should  be  used  more 
generally  than  it  has  hitherto  been.  It  will  well 
pay  the  expense  and  trouble. 

16.  Plaster  was  made  known  to  us  by  Benjamin 
Franklin,  upon  his  return  from  Paris.  As  Frank- 
lin wished  the  effects  of  this  manure  to  strike  the 
attention  of  all  cultivators,  he  wrote  in  great  let- 


76  STIMULATING    MANURES. 

ters  in  a  field  of  clover  by  the  side  of  a  public 
road,  "  This  has  been  plastered."  The  rich  veg- 
etation which  was  seen  in  the  plastered  portion 
led  him  to  adopt  this  method. 

17.  Volumes  upon  the  excellences  of  plaster 
would  not  have  produced  so  speedy  an  effect. 
From  that  period  we  have  used  great  quantities  of 
plaster. 

18.  Gypsum  is  a  compound  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  lime,  containing  more  or  less  water  crystalized. 
A  moderate  heat  deprives  it  of  its  water,  and  ren- 
ders it  of  a  darker  colour.  It  can  then  be  reduced 
to  powder  and  employed  in  that  state. 

19.  The  gypsum  should  be  scattered  by  hand, 
when  the  leaves  and  plants  begin  to  cover  the 
ground.  It  is  best  to  do  this  during  a  light  rain,  as 
it  is  well  to  have  the  leaves  a  little  moistened,  that 
they  may  retain  a  small  portion  of  the  plaster. 
The  effect  of  plaster  is  seen  for  three  or  four 
years.  'I'he  use  of  it  ought  to  be  resumed  at  the 
end  of  that  lime,  if  not  sooner.  B'rom  three  to 
four  hundred  pounds  should  be  thrown  upon  an 
acre.  When  used  on  corn  or  potatoes  it  should  be 
thrown  into  the  hills. 

20.  Ashes  produced  by  burning  wood  are  ex- 
cellent stimulants,  though  without  being  leached 
ashes  are,  usually,  much  too  active.  But  after  hav- 
ing been  deprived,  by  the  action  of  water,  of  nearly 
all  their  salts,  they  still  produce  great  effects.  In 
this  state  they  are  called  leaclted  ashes.  How 
often  do  we  see  large  piles  of  these  ashes  left, 
probably  in  the  way,  from  year  to  year.  If  farm- 
ers knew  their  value,  they  would  scatter  them  over 
the  land  without  delay. 


iMPROVEMEiNT    OF    THE    SOIL.  77 

21.  Leached  ashes  are  most  powerful  upon  low 
lands  and  meadows.  Here  they  not  only  help  the 
growth  of  good  plants,  hut  free  the  soil  from  weeds. 
By  the  use  of  these  ashes,  lands  drenclied  with 
water  may  be  freed  from  rushes,  and  prepared  for 
yielding  clover,  and  other  plants  of  good  kinds. 
'J'hey  amend  clayey  soils  and  promote  vegetation. 
Farmers  should  be  careful  to  scatter  them  over  the 
fields  and  not  throw  them  into  the  dooryara  fiom 
year  to  year,  where  they  are  entirely  lost. 

22.  iViarl  is  usually  nothing  more  than  a  mixture 
of  lime  and  clay.  Shell  marl  is  composed  of  lime 
and  sand  :  this  last  kind  is  best  for  sand  land,  and 
the  former  for  clay  land.  The  shell  marl  is  found 
in  great  quantities  in  New-Jersey,  and  has  quad- 
rupled the  value  of  many  farms.  This  is  partic- 
ularly the  case  in  Monmouth  county.  There  are 
also  large  beds  of  marl  in  the  state  of  New-York, 
but  little  attention  has  as  yet  been  given  to  this 
valuable  species  of  manure. 


CHAPTER  xvnr. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  SOIL. 

1.  To  improve  the  soil  is  to  render  it  more  suited 
to  the  growth  of  plants.  Before  this  can  be  done 
we  musi  know  the  particular  aliment  which  the 
different  plants  require,  and  the  present  qualities 
of  the  soil  we  wish  to  act  upon.  We  always  work 
in  the  dark  when  we   do  not  thoroughly  and  ac- 


78  IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    SOIL. 

curately  understand  the  end  for  which  we  are  toil- 
ing, and  the  substance  we  are  acting  upon. 

2.  The  soil  can  be  increased  by  mechanical 
means.  It  is  known  that  the  best  earths  produce 
but  little,  if  they  be  not  stirred  by  the  spade,  the  hoe, 
or  the  plough.  This  operation  divides  and  softens 
the  earth.  It  brings  to  the  surface  the  manures  of 
all  kinds,  which  the  rains  had  caused  to  sink  below 
it.  It  helps  the  spreading  of  the  roots  and  mixes 
the  manure  with  the  earth. 

3.  Ploughing  also  destroys  weeds,  and  causes 
them  to  serve  as  manure.  And,  lastly,  it  frees 
the  soil  from  vermin,  which  would  otherwise  mul- 
tiply in  it  to  the  destruction  of  the  harvest.  Plough- 
ing forms  the  basis  of  agriculture,  for  without  it 
there  can  be  no  harvest.  Ground  that  we  are 
very  particular  with  should  be  stirred  with  the  hoe 
or  spade,  as  these  instruments  are  more  thorough 
than  the  plough. 

4.  It  is,  in  most  cases,  a  good  practice  to  har- 
row the  fall  grain  in  the  spring.  The  drag,  how- 
ever, should  be  light,  and  the  teeth  made  of  wood. 
This  operation  opens  the  earth  and  lets  in  the  air 
and  moisture.  The  roller  should  be  used  on  rough, 
open  soils.  This  instrument  is  sometimes  used 
on  wet,  heavy  land  with  much  injury.  Reduced, 
clayey  land  will  become  too  hard,  without  any  as- 
sistance from  the  roller. 

5.  But  on  lumpy,  porous  land  the  roller  should 
be  used.  It  unites  and  levels  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  presses  the  seeds  into  contact  with 
the  earth.  The  roller  also  makes  a  tine  prepar- 
ation for  the  scythe.  It  is  not  unfrequently  the 
case  that  the  frosts  of  sprhm  rai&e  the  roots  of 


IMPROVUMENT    OF    THL    SOIL.  79 

grain  out  of  the  ground,  when  they  are  left  bare, 
and  soon  die.  By  rolling  the  land  at  this  time  we 
crowd  the  roots  aguin  into  the  earth.  This  will 
often  save  a  crop. 

6.  That  the  subject  may  be  clearly  understood, 
we  will  distinguish  soils  as  clayey,  calcareous,  si- 
licious,  and  sandy.  These  divisions  seem  to  com- 
prise all  those  requiring  to  be  amended.  And  the 
quality  of  the  earth  we  find  in  each  will  tell  us 
what  must  be  done  to  make  an  improvement. 

7.  A  clayey  soil  is  rendered  pasty  (what  farm- 
ers call  sticky)  by  rains,  and  it  is  hardened  and 
cracked  by  heat.  This  soil  absorbs  moisture  from 
the  air  only  on  its  surface,  but  takes  in  the  water 
from  the  rain  so  abundantly  that  the  roots  of  plants 
are  in  danger,  in  a  wet  time,  of  being  drowned. 
This  great  quantity  of  water  also  frequently  stag- 
nates ;  and  this  soon  destroys  the  crop. 

8.  In  clayey  soils  the  freezing  and  thawing  throw 
out  the  roots  of  the  grain,  and  leave  them  exposed 
to  the  frost  and  winds.  In  this  condition  the  grain 
winter  kills.  To  remedy  this,  in  part,  we  should 
pass  the  roller  over  the  grain  after  every  thaw. 
This  will  cover  and  crowd  the  roots  of  the  grain 
into  the  earth. 

9.  Everything  that  will  tend  to  soften  this 
clayey  earth,  to  render  it  more  light  and  porous, 
and  to  hasten  the  passage  of  water  through  it,  is 
adapted  to  the  improvement  of  this  kind  of  soil. 
We  should  mix  with  this  earth  calcareous  sands, 
broken  shells,  chalks,  lean  marl,  ashes,  lime,  <fec. 
The  ploughings  should  be  deep  and  frequent.  The 
green  crops  should  be  turned  in.  And  there  should 
be  a  plentiful  use  of  the  hot  manures. 


80  IMPROVEME-NT  OF   THE  SOIL. 

10.  Calcareous  soils  possess  properties  entirely 
different  from  those  of  the  clayey  soils.  The  rains 
drain  through  them  easily,  and  they  throw  off 
moisture  readily  by  evaporation.  The  air,  again, 
can  penetrate  the  sandy  soil  and  deposite  the  mois- 
ture with  which  it  is  charged. 

11.  The  tillage  of  these  soils  is  light  and  easy; 
and  as  they  are  loose  and  porous,  provided  they 
have  sufficient  depth,  roots  spread  in  them  easily. 
To  improve  these  soils  we  should  make  them  ca- 
pable of  holding  water,  and  this  may  be  done  by 
a  dressing  of  fat  marl  or  calcined  clay.  These 
soils,  being  naturally  warm,  require  the  ftesh  ma- 
nure of  neat  cattle.  The  rich  mud  drawn  from 
rivers  and  low  places  may  be  used  with  great  suc- 
cess in  improving  calcareous  soils. 

12.  The  custom  of  allowing  lands  to  rest  after 
having  produced  several  harvests,  has  long  been 
in  practice,  and  is  still  followed,  to  a  great  extent, 
in  this  country.  It  is  thought  that  land  ought  to 
rest  to  recover  its  strength,  or  productive  virtue. 
The  necessity  of  rest  in  animals  probably  gave 
rise  to  this  idea.  But  nothing  is  more  unfounded 
in  truth.  If  lands  are  properly  managed  they  need 
not  rest. 

13.  The  scarcity  of  manure  has  been,  again, 
another  cause  of  letting  lands  lie  fallow.  But  the 
ease  with  which  fodder  may  be  cultivated  furnishes 
the  means  of  supporting  an  increased  number  of 
animals,  and  hence  of  obtaining  an  increased  quan- 
tity of  manure.  With  the  help  of  this  the  farmer 
need  not  let  his  lands  lie  idle.  He  may  make 
sufficient  manure  to  keep  his  land  most  of  the  time 
under  the  plough. 


SUCCESSION    OF    CROPS.  81 

14.  A  great  advantage  has  arisen  from  the  sys- 
tem of  rotation  of  crops,  which  is  found  to  answer 
all  the  purposes  of  fallowing.  By  skilfully  ar- 
ranging a  succession  of  crops  of  grain,  artificial 
fodder,  leguminous  plants,  roots,  &c.,  the  earth  is 
enriched,  instead  of  being  impoverished.  The 
ground  is  likewise  cleansed  from  weeds,  and  more 
abundant  crops  are  obtained  at  less  expense. 

15.  During  those  years  when  certain  fodders, 
such  as  clover  and  trefoil,  require  no  other  care 
than  that  o(  harvesting  them,  the  farmer  can  be- 
stow all  his  attention,  manures,  and  the  labour  of 
his  cattle  upon  such  other  portions  of  his  farm  as 
may  need  improvement.  So  that,  instead  of  having 
one  half  of  his  land  lying  as  an  unproductive  fal- 
low, it  may  be  covered  with  herbage,  affording  the 
finest  food  for  cattle. 

16.  The  soil  will  be  growing  richer,  instead  of 
poorer,  and  may  be  prepared  for  raising  grain, 
without  the  addition  of  any  barnyard  manure. 
Farmers  should  keep  sheep,  not  only  for  the  pro- 
fit on  the  wool,  but  for  the  purposes  of  manure. 
And  they  should  make  all  the  manure  they  can, 
from  every  plant  that  may  grow  upon  the  farm. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

SUCCESSION   OF    CROPS. 


1.  The  soil  and  climate  may  be  well  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  a  particular  plant,  and  yet 
that  plant  not  do  well,  if  sown  on  the  same  piece 

F 


83  SUCCESSION    OF    CROPS. 

of  ground  from  year  to  year.  To  manage  land 
profitably,  various  kinds  of  vegetables  must  be  raised 
on  it  in  succession.  The  rotation  must  also  be 
conducted  with  intelligence,  that  none  unsuited  to 
the  soil  or  climate  be  introduced. 

2.  It  is  the  art  of  varying  the  crops  upon  the 
same  soil,  of  causing  different  vegetables  to  suc- 
ceed one  another,  and  of  skilfully  managing  the 
effect  of  each  upon  the  soil,  which  can  alone  es- 
tablish that  good  order  of  succession  which  consti- 
tutes cropping. 

3.  A  good  system  of  cropping  is  the  best  surety 
of  success  that  a  farmer  can  have.  Without  this, 
all  is  vague,  uncertain,  and  hazardous.  To  estab- 
lish a  good  system  of  cropping,  a  degree  of  know- 
ledge is  necessary,  which,  unhappily,  is  wanting 
to  the  greater  part  of  our  practical  farmers.  Cer- 
tain facts  and  principles,  which  may  serve  as  guides 
in  this  important  branch  of  agriculture,  will  now 
be  stated. 

4.  All  plants  exhaust  the  soil.  They  take  from 
it  certain  properties,  which,  if  not  replaced  by  art, 
will  leave  the  soil  so  much  impoverished.  If 
crop  after  crop  is  taken  from  the  same  field,  the 
ground  will  become  fairly  exhausted.  The  earth 
cannot  give  nutriment  to  plants  without  being  im- 
poverished. 

5.  But  all  plants  do  not  exhaust  the  soil  equally. 
Although  the  air,  water,  and  moisture  in  the  earth 
are  the  common  food  of  plants,  yet  different  plants 
have  not  the  same  aliment  Some  love  a  dry  soil, 
some  a  wet,  while  others  will  grow  only  in  the 
richest  lands.     Every  plant  has  its  own  favourite 


SUCCESSION    OP    CROPS.  83 

food ;  and  some  are  large,  and  others  are  small 
eaters. 

6.  The  grains  and  most  of  the  grasses  having 
but  few  leaves,  do  not  receive  much  food  from  the 
air  or  water,  but  obtain  most  of  their  nourishment 
from  the  ground.  These,  consequently,  exhaust 
the  soil  more  than  such  plants  as  have  large,  fleshy- 
leaves,  which  feed  upon  the  air  and  water,  and 
draw  carbonic  acid  and  water  into  the  earth. 
Nearly  all  the  plants  that  are  cut  for  fodder  are 
of  this  kind. 

7.  In  most  cases  those  plants  which  are  cut 
green,  or  while  in  flower,  exhaust  the  soil  but  lit- 
tle :  till  this  period  they  have  derived  their  support 
almost  entirely  from  the  air  and  water.  The  stalks 
and  roots  are  charged  with  juices,  and  those  parts 
that  are  left  in  the  earth  after  mowing  will  restore 
to  the  soil  all  that  had  been  received  from  it  by  the 
plant. 

8.  Plants  of  different  kinds  do  not  exhaust  a  soil 
in  the  same  manner.  They  exhaust  only  that  por- 
tion of  the  soil  which  comes  in  contact  with  their 
roots.  A  plant  that  has  a  long,  single  root,  may 
be  able  to  find  an  abundance  of  food  in  land,  the  top 
of  which  has  been  impoverished  by  short  spread- 
ing roots. 

9.  Plants  of  the  same  kind  always  send  their 
roots  in  the  same  direction.  They,  consequently, 
are  supported  by  the  same  layers  of  earth.  A  tree 
seldom  prospers  that  has  taken  the  place  of  an- 
other of  the  same  kind.  If  there  has  been  suffi- 
cient time  since  the  old  tree  was  taken  away  for 
its  roots  to  rot  and  thus  supply  manure,  the  second 


84  SUCCESSION    OF    CROPS. 

growth  may  flourish.     But  unless  this  is  the  case, 
the  tree  will  not  be  healthy  and  thrifty. 

10.  It  has  been  proved  that  plants  have  taste 
and  choice  regarding  their  food.  It  is  in  fact  with 
them  as  with  animals,  there  are  some  elements 
common  to  all,  and  some  peculiar  to  each  kind. 
This  is  beyond  doubt,  since  a  certain  plant  takes 
up  one  quality,  and  some  other  plant  an  opposite 
quality. 

11.  All  plants  do  not  restore  to  the  soil  either  the 
same  quantity  or  the  same  quality  of  manure.  The 
grains  take  most  from  the  soil  and  return  least  to 
it.  Plants  with  large  roots  and  stalks  frequently 
return  to  the  soil  as  much  as  they  take  from  it. 
From  what  has  been  said,  we  may  draw  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions. 

12.  Although  the  soil  may  be  well  prepared,  it 
cannot  nourish  a  long  succession  of  crops  without 
becoming  exhausted. 

Each  harvest  impoverishes  the  soil  to  a  certain 
extent,  according  to  the  degree  of  nourishment 
which  it  restores  to  the  earth. 

The  cultivation  of  spindle  roots  ought  to  suc- 
ceed that  of  top  and  running  roots. 

13.  We  should  not  return  too  soon  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  same  kinds  of  vegetables  in  the  same 
soil. 

It  is  very  unwise  to  allow  two  kinds  of  plants 
which  permit  the  ready  growth  of  weeds  to  be 
raised  in  succession. 

Plants  that  derive  their  principal  support  from 
the  soil  should  not  be  sown,  unless  the  soil  is  suf- 
ficiently provided  with  manure. 

14.  "When  the  soil  shows  symptoms  of  exhaus- 


GRASSES.  85 

tioii,  the  cultivation  of  those  plants  that  restore 
most  to  the  soil  must  be  resorted  to.  These  prin- 
ciples are  confirmed  by  experience. 

15.  We  have  here  stated  a  system  of  agricul- 
ture, rich  in  its  products,  but  more  rich  in  its 
economy.  It  saves  labour  and  manure.  All  cidti- 
vators  ought  to  be  governed  by  them.  Their  ap- 
plication, however,  must  be  modified  by  the  nature 
of  soils  and  climates,  and  the  particular  wants  of 
each  locality. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


1.  '*  I  HAVE  found  in  our  publications  on  agri- 
culture very  little  information  on  the  improvement 
of  our  meadow  and  pasture  grounds.  Indeed,  the 
names  of  our  native  grasses  are  scarcely  enumer- 
ated, much  less  are  their  habits  described,  or 
their  relative  merits  for  hay  and  pasture  pointed 
out,  in  any  American  work  which  has  fallen  with- 
in my  notice.  A  considerable  portion  of  our  lands 
are  unsuitable  for  the  system  of  convertible  hus- 
bandry, that  is,  an  alteration  of  grain  and  grass 
crops. 

2.  "Of  this  description  are  our  stiff  clays,  marshes, 
and  swamps,  and  all  of  those  lands  in  which  til- 
lage is  rendered  difficult  by  reason  of  hardpan, 
stones,  or  wetness.  These  should  be  improved  as 
permanent  meadows  and   pastures  ;  and  it  is  of 


86  GRASSES. 

the  first  importance  to  the  farmer  to  know  the 
grasses  which  will  render  them  most  conducive  to 
profit ;  for  that  our  grass  grounds  are  as  suscep- 
tible of  improvement  as  our  tillage  grounds,  by  a 
suitable  selection  of  seeds  and  suitable  manage- 
ment, must  be  apparent  to  every  reflecting  mind. 
The  improvement  and  productiveness  of  our  cat- 
tle and  sheep  husbandry,  which  at  this  lime  de- 
servedly engage  much  of  the  public  attention,  de- 
pend materially  on  this  branch  of  farming. 

3.  "  Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass.  This  is  a  grass 
of  diminutive  growth,  and  is  not  worth  cultivating 
for  hay.  It  is  nevertheless  considered  as  valuable 
in  pasture,  on  account  of  its  aftbrding  very  early 
feed,  and  growing  quick  after  being  cropped.  Its 
proper  situation  is  high,  well-drained  meadows. 
It  constitutes,  in  such  meadows,  in  Massachusetts, 
at  least  one  half  of  the  whole  crop.  Its  chief  fault 
is  that  it  is  too  early  for  the  other  grasses,  but  it 
afibrds  a  second  and  even  a  third  crop  if  cut  early. 
It  is  the  grass  which  gives  the  finest  flavour,  so 
grateful  to  milch  cows. 

4.  ^^  Meadow  Foxtail  possesses  all  the  advantages 
of  early  growth  with  the  preceding,  and  is  much 
more  abundant  in  product  and  nutriment.  It  gen- 
erally constitutes  one  of  five  or  six  kinds  which  are 
sowed  together,  by  the  English  farmers,  for  pas- 
ture ;  and  affords  withal  a  tolerable  crop  of  hay. 
It  does  best  in  moist  soils,  whether  loams,  clays, 
or  reclaimed  bogs.  Sheep  and  horses  have  a  bet- 
ter relish  for  it,  says  Sir  G.  Sinclair,  than  oxen. 

5.  "  Rough  Cocksfoot.  Dr.  Muhlenburgh  and  T. 
Cooper  concur  in  opinion  that  this  is  the  orchard 
grass  of  the  United  States,  though  some  that  I  have 


GRASSES.  87 

raised  as  orchard  grass  does  not  seem  to  corres- 
pond with  the  figure  of  the  dactylis  glomerata  in 
the  second  volume  of  Dickson's  Farmer's  Com- 
panion. In  England,  cocksfoot  is  taking  the  place 
of  rye  grass  with  clovers.  Arthur  Young  speaks 
in  high  commendation  of  it ;  though  all  writers 
concur  in  the  opinion,  that  it  should  be  frequently 
and  closely  cropped,  either  with  the  scythe  or  cat- 
tle, to  reap  the  full  benefit  of  its  great  merits. 

6.  "I  should  prefer  it  to  almost  every  other  grass  ; 
and  cows  are  very  fond  of  it.  Cooper  rates  it 
above  timothy,  and  says  it  is  gradually  taking  the 
place  of  the  latter,  among  the  best  farmers  about 
Philadelphia.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  earlier  than  timothy,  and  of  course  more 
suitable  to  cut  with  clover  for  hay.  Its  growth  is 
early  and  rapid,  after  it  has  been  cropped.  It 
does  well  on  loams  and  sands,  and  grows  well  in 
shade. 

7.  "  If  further  facts  are  wanting  in  favour  of  this 
grass  for  pasture,  the  reader  will  find  them  in  an 
article  in  the  American  Farmer  of  the  fourteenth 
November,  1823,  supposed  to  be  Colonel  Powel's, 
a  gentleman  who  combines  as  much  science  with 
judicious  practice,  especially  in  cattle  and  grass 
husbandry,  as  any  person  in  the  Union.  He  says, 
*  I  have  tried  orchard  grass  for  ten  years.  It  pro- 
duces more  pasturage  than  any  artificial  grass  I 
have  seen  in  America.'  Sow  two  bushels  of  seed 
to  an  acre. 

8.  "  Tall  Oat  Grass.  Both  Arator  (Mr.  Taylor) 
and  Dr.  Muhlenburg  have  placed  this  at  the  head 
of  their  lists  of  grasses,  which  they  have  recom- 
mended to  the  attention  of  the  American  farmer. 


88  GRASSES. 

The  latter  says  it  is  of  all  others  the  earliest  and 
best  grass  for  green  fodder  and  hay.  The  doctor 
was,  probably,  not  apprized  of  its  deficiency  in 
nutritive  matter,  as  indicated  in  the  table. 

9.  "  It  possesses  the  advantage  of  early,  quick, 
and  late  growth,  for  which  the  cocksfoot  is  es- 
teemed, tills  well,  and  is  admirably  calculated  for 
pasture  grass.  I  measured  some  on  the  twentieth 
of  June,  when  in  blossom,  when  it  should  be  cut 
for  hay,  and  found  it  four  and  a  half  feet  long. 
The  latter  math  is  nearly  equal  in  weight,  and 
superior  in  nutritious  matter,  to  the  seed  crop. 

10.  "  Tall  Fescue,  although  u  native  grass,  has 
not  fallen  undeir  my  personal  observation.  It 
stands  highest,  says  Davy,  according  to  the  ex- 
periments of  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  of  any  grass, 
properly  so  called,  as  to  the  quantity  of  nutritive 
matter  afforded  by  the  whole  crop,  when  cut  at  the 
time  of  flowering ;  and  meadow  catstail  (timothy) 
grass  affords  most  food,  if  cut  at  the  time  when 
the  seed  is  ripe. 

11.  "It  grows  naturally  in  wet  grounds,  in  bog 
meadows,  and  on  the  sides  of  ditches,  often  to  the 
height  of  four  or  five  feet.  Our  ignorance  of  ag- 
ricultural botany,  and  of  the  intrinsic  value  of  this 
grass,  can  alone  have  prevented  its  being  more 
generally  known  and  cultivated.  It  must  be  very 
valuable  for  wet  grounds,  as  from  its  rapid  growth 
it  is  calculated  to  smother  or  keep  down  the 
coarser  kinds,  which  naturally  abound  in  these  sit- 
uations . 

12.  "  Rye  Grass  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Scot- 
land and  the  north  of  England,  and  where  cocks- 
foot has  not   superseded  it,  is  generally  mixed 


GRASSES.  89 

with  clover  seeds.  It  is  rather  declining  in  pub- 
lic estimation.  It  does  well  in  pasture  ;  and  as  it 
contains  much  nutriment,  is  considered  valuable 
for  cows  and  sheep.  Dickson  says  it  does  best  in 
rich  moist  meadows.  Young  does  not  speak  well 
of  it. 

13.  "  Red  Clover.  There  are  many  species  of 
the  trifolium.  and  several  varieties  of  the  red  clo- 
ver. Whether  the  kind  we  generally  cultivate  is 
the  pratense,  or  not,  I  am  unable  to  determine 
The  character  of  red  clover  as  a  meliorating  fertil- 
izing crop,  is  too  generally  known  to  require  illus- 
tration. It  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  perma- 
nent grass  lands  ;  though  it  yields  to  no  grass  for 
alternating  with  grain,  in  convertible  husbandry. 

14.  "  It  formerly  was  as  indispensable  in  a  course 
of  crops  in  Norfolk,  England,  (which  has  been  con- 
sidered pre-eminent  for  good  tillage,)  as  turnips  ; 
and  the  maxim  was,  and  still  is,  '  No  turnips,  no 
crops.'  But  it  appears  from  Young's  survey  of 
that  county,  that  it  cannot  now  be  depended  on 
oftener  than  once  in  from  eight  to  twelve  years 
Trefoil,  white  clover,  cocksfoot,  rye  grass,  (fee, 
are  therefore  alternated  with  red  clover,  in  the 
grass  years.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
neither  red  clover  nor  other  grasses  will  bear  re- 
peating for  a  course  of  years  upon  the  generality 
of  the  soils. 

15.  "  They  exhaust  the  ground  of  the  peculiar 
nourishment  required  for  their  support.  In  Great 
Britain,  white  clover,  trefoil,  rye  grass,  or  cocksfoot 
is  generally  sown  with  red  clover  seeds.  From 
twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of  seeds  are  sown  to  the 
acre      In  the  northern  states,  timothy  is  generally 


90  GRASSES. 

sown  with  clover ;  though  the  mixture  is  an  im- 
proper one  for  hay  ;  for  the  clover  is  fit  for  the 
scythe  ten  or  fifteen  days  before  the  timothy  has 
arrived  to  maturity.  If  sown  alone,  from  eight  to 
sixteen  pounds  of  clover  seed  should  be  put  on  an 
acre  ;  more  on  old  land  than  on  new. 

16.  "  White  or  Dutch  Clover  {trifolium  repens) 
is  considered  in  England  of  importance  to  hus- 
bandry, if  we  are  to  judge  from'  the  great  quantity 
of  seed  which  is  there  sown  annually.  With  us, 
many  districts  produce  it  spontaneously  ;  but  it  is 
too  seldom  sown.  It  shrinks  greatly  in  drying, 
and  does  not  contain  as  much  nutritive  matter  as 
red  clover  ;  yet  its  value  as  a  pasture  grass  is  uni- 
versally admitted.  Its  increase  is  very  much  fa- 
cilitated by  a  top  dressing  of  gypsum,  lime,  or 
ashes. 

17.  "  Lucerne,  although  aflfording  much  more 
green  food,  contains  less  nutriment  in  a  single 
crop  than  red  clover.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  it  grows  much  quicker  than  clover, 
and  will  bear  cutting  twice  as  often.  In  the  soil- 
ing system,  an  acre  of  lucerne  will  keep  four  cat- 
tle or  horses  from  the  fifteenth  of  May  to  the  first 
of  October. 

18.  *'I  sowed  seed  in  1821,  at  the  rate  of  six 
pounds  the  acre,  with  barley.  It  has  stood  the 
winters  well,  much  better  than  clover ;  and  has  been 
in  a  state  of  progressive  improvement.  Drought 
has  not  affected  it.  The  plants  are  very  tender 
the  first  year,  and  require  either  a  very  clean 
tilth,  or  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds  and  grass  with 
a  hoe  the  first  year.  It  should  have  a  deep  loam, 
as  it  sends  down  tap  roots  five  or  six  feet ;  and  it 


GRASSES.  91 

is  equally  necessary  that  the,ground  should  not  be 
wet. 

19.  "It  may  be  sown  either  in  drills  or  broadcast, 
with  or  without  grain.  Fifteen  pounds  of  seed  are 
required  for  the  acre  if  drilled,  and  twenty  are  not 
too  much  if  sown  broadcast.  To  the  proprietor  of 
a  dairy,  an  acre  or  two  of  lucerne  would  be  valu- 
able, to  be  fed  to  his  cows  in  addition  to  ordinary 
pasture. 


CHAPTER  XXr. 

GRASSES CONTINUED. 

1.  "  Long-rooted  clover  is  a  native  of  Hungary, 
and  I  do  not  think  has  ever  found  its  way  across 
the  Atlantic.  The  root  is  biennial,  and  if  sown  in 
the  fall,  lasts  only  during  the  next  season.  It 
penetrates  to  a  great  depth  in  the  ground,  and  con- 
sequently is  but  little  affected  by  drought.  It 
therefore  requires  a  deep  dry  soil. 

2.  "  The  product  of  this  grass,  when  compared  to 
others  that  are  allied  to  it  in  habit  and  place  of 
growth,  proves  greatly  superior.  It  affords  twice 
the  weight  of  grass,  and  more  than  double  the  nu- 
tritive matter  that  is  given  by  the  common  clover. 
It  gives  abundance  of  seed  ;  and,  says  G.  Sinclair, 
if  the  ground  be  kept  free  of  weeds,  it  sows  itself, 
vegetates,  and  grows  rapidly,  without  covering  in, 
or  any  operation  whatever. 

3.  "  Four  years  it  has  propagated  itself  in  this 


92  GRASSES. 

manner  on  the  space  of  ground  which  it  now  oc- 
cupies, and  from  which  this  statement  of  its  com- 
parative value  is  made.  This  species  would,  no 
doubt,  prove  a  valuable  acquisition  to  our  hus- 
bandry, whether  we  consider  its  value  for  green 
food,  hay,  or  as  a  green  crop  to  be  turned  in  pre- 
paratory to  grain. 

4.  "  Sain  Foin  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  a  calca- 
reous or  chalky  soil.  It  is  true  it  is  cultivated  in 
Norfolk,  England,  which  is  a  soil  of  sand  and 
loam,  naturally  destitute  of  calcareous  matter. 
But  it  is  common  there  to  dress  their  lands  with 
clay  marl,  which  abounds  with  carbonate  of  lime  ; 
without  which  dressing,  says  Young,  Norfolk  soils 
will  not  grow  sain  foin. 

5.  "  This  writer  considers  it  '  one  of  the  most 
valuable  plants  that  were  ever  introduced  into  the 
agriculture  of  Great  Britain.'  The  well-known 
Mr.  Coke  cultivates  four  hundred  acres  of  this 
grass,  and  sows  it  without  other  seeds.  Several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  sain  foin  in 
this  country,  but  hitherto  I  believe  without  success. 

6.  "  Timothy.  This  grass  is  distinguished  in 
Great  Britain  by  the  name  of  meadow  catstail ;  in 
New-England  by  that  of  herd's  grass.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  grasses  that  are  cultivated  ; 
and  what  is  worthy  the  notice  of  every  farmer,  it 
affords  more  than  double  the  nutriment  when  cut  in 
the  seed  that  it  does  in  the  flower. 

7.  ''In  tenacious,  strong,  and  moist  soils  it  is  en- 
titled to  a  precedence,  perhaps,  over  any  single 
grass  for  hay,  yet  does  not  seem  to  be  suitable  to 
mix  with  clover  seeds  when  intended  for  meadow. 
Another  consideration,  which  renders  it  particu- 


GRASSES.  93 

larly  worthy  of  attention,  is  the  seed  which  it  af- 
fords, and  which  may  be  saved  without  materially 
diminishing  the  hay  crop.  From  ten  to  thirty 
bushels  of  seed  may  be  taken  from  an  acre  of 
timothy,  which,  at  the  price  it  now  bears,  is  of  it- 
self a  handsome  remuneration. 

8.  "  Florin  has  of  late  years  been  brought  into 
notice  in  Great  Britain,  by  the  experiments  of  Dr. 
Richardson  ;  who  particularly  recommended  it  for 
the  cold  boggy  soils  of  the  mountainous  districts, 
where  ordinary  grasses  would  not  thrive.  The 
peculiar  value  of  the  florin,  and  of  other  grasses 
of  the  agrostis  family,  arises  from  their  fitness  for 
winter  pasture  ;  as  they  lose  very  little  of  their 
bulk  or  nutriment  by  remaining  in  the  soil  after 
they  have  ceased  to  grow, 

9.  "  Its  name  [creeping  bent  or  couch  grass)  im- 
plies a  difficulty  in  mowing  it,  except  on  a  surface 
perfectly  smooth.  We  have  seen  it  recommended 
to  the  notice  of  American  farmers  ;  but  from  the 
very  limited  progress  which  seems  to  have  been 
made  in  its  cultivation,  we  infer  that  it  has  fallen 
short  of  public  expectation. 

10.  "  Upright  Bent  Grass.  Dr.  Muhlenburgh 
considers  this  the  herd's  grass  of  the  southern, 
and  the  foul  meadow  of  the  eastern  states,  of 
which  whitetop  and  redtop  are  varieties.  This 
grass  is  more  congenial  to  our  climate  than  to  that 
of  England.  In  any  boggy  soils,  both  varieties  of 
this  grass  have  come  in  spontaneously,  as  soon  as 
the  ground  has  been  cleared  and  drained,  have 
soon  formed  a  compact  sod,  and  afforded  good  hay 
and  good  pasture. 

J 1.  "  Flat-stalled  Meadow  Grass.    This,  accord- 


'94  GRASSES. 

ing  to  Muhlenburgh,  is  the  blue  grass,  which  is 
considered  as  a  pest  in  many  of  our  tillage  grounds. 
The  small  crop  which  it  gives,  and  the  little  nutri- 
tive matter  which  this  affords,  show  the  little  de- 
pendance  that  ought  to  be  placed  on  it  for  grazing, 
or  for  hay. 

12.  "  Smooth-stalked  Meadow  Grass  is  a  native 
plant,  and  is  well  adapted  for  permanent  pastures. 
It  grows  quickly  after  being  cropped,  and  does 
well  upon  dry  ground.  Floating  Fescue  grows 
well  in  swamps  and  bog  soils,  where  good  kinds 
are  most  wanted. 

13.  "I  would  suggest,  with  much  deference, 
whether  grasses  may  not  be  divided,  for  the  prac- 
tical benefit  of  the  farmer,  into  three  kinds,  to  wit : 
1st.  Cultivated  grasses.  All  kinds,  strictly  speaking, 
which  the  soil  does  not  produce  spontaneously,  are 
cultivated  grasses.  But  the  term,  as  generally 
used,  and  as  I  here  employ  it,  applies  only  to  such 
as  are  sown  to  alternate  with  grain,  pulse,  and 
roots,  in  a  systematic  rotation  of  crops, 

14.  "  The  grasses  selected  for  this  purpose  are, 
generally,  the  red  clovers,  lucerne,  sain  foin,  or- 
chard, timothy,  tall  oat,  and  rye  grass.  Clover  is 
the  primary  dependance  on  all  soils  which  will 
grow  it,  and  especially  where  gypsum  can  exer- 
cise its  magic  powers.  As  vegetables  are  said  to 
exhaust  the  soil  in  proportion  to  the  smallness  of 
their  leaves,  (the  larger  the  leaves  the  more  nutri- 
ment they  draw  from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  less 
from  the  soil,)  clovers  are  entitled  to  the  high 
commendation  they  have  obtained  among  Ameri- 
can farmers.  But  as  these  plants  are  liable  to 
premature  destruction  by  the  frosts  of  winter,  it  is 


GRASSES.  95 

both  prudent  and  wise  to  intermix  with  their  seeds 
those  of  some  other  grasses  more  to  be  depended  on, 

15.  "  For  this  purpose,  on  sands,  loams,  and 
gravels,  and  these  constitute  the  soils  usually  em- 
ployed in  convertible  husbandry,  the  orchard  grass 
and  tall  meadow  oat  grass  appear  to  be  best  cal- 
culated to  ensure  profit.  They  grow  early,  delight 
in  a  clover  sod,  and  are  fit  for  the  scythe  when 
clover  is  in  the  bloom,  the  time  when  it  ought  to 
be  cut.  The  hay  from  this  mixture  may  be  made 
before  harvest  commences  ;  and  if  the  soil  is  good, 
a  second  crop  may  be  cut  almost  equal  to  the  first. 
If  intended  for  pasture  the  second  year,  either  of 
these  grasses  will  afford  more  abundant  food  than 
timothy. 

16.  "  In  clays,  the  meadow  foxtail,  an  excellent 
grass,  might  be  substituted,  though,  according  to 
Sinclair,  the  tall  oat  grass  will  do  well  here  also. 
In  wet  soilsy  where  clovers  do  not  grow  well,  tim- 
othy and  meadow  reed  grass  would  be  a  good  se- 
lection, sown  either  separately  or  together. 

17.  "  Lucerne  and  sain  foin  require  a  deep  dry 
soil,  and  are  generally  sown  without  other  seeds. 
The  first  does  not  attain  to  perfection  before  the 
third  year  ;  and  both,  where  succesfully  cultivated, 
are  permitted  to  occupy  the  ground  from  six  to 
eight  years. 

18.  "2d.  Meadow  grasses.  In  selecting  these 
the  object  is  to  obtain  the  greatest  burden  of  good 
hay,  and  to  mix  those  kinds  which  may  be  profit- 
ably cut  at  the  same  time.  For  clayey  and  moist 
soils,  many  valuable  and  nutritious  kinds  seem  to 
be  well  adapted  ;  that  is  to  say,  meadow  foxtail, 
timothy,  tall   oat,  meadow  soft  grass,  floating  fes- 


yb  GRASSES. 

cue,  rye  grass,  reed  meadow,  smooth-stalked  mead- 
ow, American  cocksfoot,  upright  bent  or  herd's 
grass,  and  tall  fescue. 

19.  "  And  the  last  five  are  peculiarly  suited  to 
swamp  or  hog  soils.  For  dry  loams,  sands^  and 
gravels,  which  never  ought  to  be  kept  long  in  grass, 
the  cocksfoot  or  orchard  grass  and  tall  oat  are 
probably  the  best ;  and  to  these  might  be  added 
red  and  white  clover.  The  great  difiiculty  is  to 
prevent  the  deterioration  of  meadows.  This  takes 
place  from  the  better  grasses  running  out,  and 
giving  place  to  coarser  kinds,  in  moss,  and  to  use- 
less or  noxious  plants,  aided  often  by  a  neglect  to 
keep  them  well  drained. 

20.  "  The  finer  and  more  nutritious  kinds  thrive 
best  in  moist,  though  they  will  not  live  long  in  wet 
soils.  Hence  it  is  of  the  first  importance  to  keep 
the  surface  soil  free  from  standing  water,  by  good 
and  sufficient  ditches  ;  and  it  often  becomes  neces- 
sary, and  in  most  cases  it  is  advisable,  on  a  flat 
surface,  to  lay  the  land  in  ridges  at  right  angles 
with  the  drains. 

21.  "  Another  precaution  to  be  observed  is  not  to 
feed  them  with  stock  when  the  soil  is  wet  and 
poachy.  Harrowing  in  the  fall  has  been  found 
beneficial  to  meadows.  It  destroys  mosses,  and 
covers  the  seeds  of  grasses  which  have  fallen,  or 
may  be  sown,  and  thus  produces  a  continued  suc- 
cession of  young  plants.  In  Europe,  lime  is  used 
with  good  eff'ect  as  a  top  dressing  to  grass  lands, 
as  are  also  ashes. 

22.  "  With  us,  the  annual  application  of  a  bushel 
of  gypsum  to  the  acre  is  found  beneficial.  It  not 
only  thickens  the  verdure  with  clover,  but  is  of 


GRASSES.  97 

advantage  in  most  other  grasses.  Stable  manure 
should  be  used  only  when  it  can  be  spared  from 
the  more  profitable  uses  of  tillage.  When  the 
means  above  enumerated  fail  to  ensure  a  good 
crop  of  hay,  it  is  time  to  resort  to  the  plough,  and 
a  course  of  crops. 

23.  "3d.  Pasture  grasses.  But  few  of  the  grass- 
es most  valued  in  Great  Britain  for  pasture  are 
the  natural  growth  of  the  United  States ;  but  it  is 
believed  that  if  the  seeds  are  once  introduced  upon 
our  farms  we  shall  find  little  difficulty  in  natural- 
izing them.  Neither  the  orchard  nor  vernal  grass, 
which  are  said  to  be  indigenous  to  our  country,  is 
recognised  in  the  grass  lands  which  have  come 
within  my  observation :  yet  they  constitute,  with 
foxtail  and  tall  oat  grass,  the  earliest  and  most  val- 
uable varieties  for  perennial  pastures. 

24.  "  The  meadow  foxtail  and  orchard  grass, 
together  with  our  white  clover  and  green  meadow 
grass,  poa  trivialis,  (which  seldom  require  to  be 
sown,)  I  think  would  form  the  best  selection  for 
all  grounds  which  are  moderately  dry.  The  rye 
and  oat  grasses,  or  meadow  soft  grass,  might  be 
either  substituted  for  the  first  two  or  combined 
with  them. 

25.  "  These  would  afford  spring,  summer,  and 
fall  feed,  abundant  in  quantity,  and  wholesome 
and  nutritious  in  quality.  On  wet  soils,  (though 
pastures  require  to  be  drained,  as  well  as  mead- 
ows, to  ensure  a  rich  herbage,)  the  tall  fescue^ 
«mooth-stalked  meadow,  upright  bent,  and  herd's 
grass,  may  be  introduced  to  advantage.  Gypsum 
is  applied  to  pastures  witli  the  same  benefit  tliat  it 
is  to  meadows." — Jud<ir.  Burl. 

o 

G 


98.  HEMP- 


CHAPTER  XXIi, 


1.  "The  preparation  of  the  ground  for  sowing 
the  seed  is  by  the  plough  and  horses,  until  the 
clods  are  sufficiently  pulverized  or  dissolved,  and 
the  surface  of  the  field  is  rendered  even  and 
smooth.  It  should  be  as  carefully  prepared  as  if 
it  were  for  flax.  This  most  important  point,  too 
often  neglected,  cannot  be  attended  to  too  much. 
Scarcely  any  other  crop  better  rev/ards  diligence 
and  careful  husbandry.  Fall  or  winter  ploughing 
is  practised  with  advantage  ;  it  is  indispensable  in 
old  meadows,  or  old  pasture  grounds,  intended  for 
producing  hemp. 

2.  "  Plants  for  seed  are  ordinarily  reared  in  a 
place  distinct  from  that  in  which  they  are  cultiva- 
ted for  the  lint.  In  this  respect,  the  usage  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  which  is  understood  to  prevail  in 
Europe.  The  seeds  which  are  intended  to  repro- 
duce seeds  for  the  crop  of  the  next  year  are 
sowed  in  drills  about  four  feet  apart.  When  they 
are  grown  sufficiently  to  distinguish  between  the 
male  and  female  stalks,  the  former  are  pulled  and 
thrown  away,  and  the  latter  are  thinned,  leaving 
the  stalks  separated  seven  or  eight  inches  from 
each  other. 

3.  "  After  the  seeds  are  thrashed  out,  it  is  ad- 
visable to  spread  them  on  a  floor,  to  cure  properly 
and  prevent  their  rotting,  before  they  are  finally 
put  away  for  use  the  next  spring.     Seeds  are  not 


jTeemp.  99 

generally  used  unless  they  were  secured  the  fall 
previous  to  their  being  sown,  as  it  is  believed  they 
will  not  vegetate  if  older ;  but  it  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  when  they  are  properly  cured  and  kept 
dry,  they  will  come  up  after  the  first  year.  It  is 
important  to  prevent  them  from  heating,  which 
destroys  the  vegetating  property,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose they  should  be  thinly  spread  on  a  sheltered 
floor. 

4.  "  The  seeds,  whether  to  reproduce  seeds  only, 
or  the  lint,  are  sowed  about  the  same  time.  Opin- 
ions vary  as  to  the  best  period.  It  depends  a  good 
deal  upon  the  season.  The  plant  is  very  tender 
when  it  first  shoots  up,  and  is  affected  by  frost. 
Some  have  sowed  as  early  as  the  first  of  April; 
but  it  is  generally  agreed,  that  all  the  month  of 
May,  and  about  the  tenth  of  it  especially,  is  the 
most  favourable  time. 

5.  "  When  the  object  is  to  make  a  crop  of  hemp, 
the  seeds  are  thrown  broadcast.  The  usual  quan- 
tity is  a  bushel  and  a  half  to  the  acre  ;  but  here 
again  the  farmers  differ,  some  using  two  bushels, 
or  even  two  and  a  half. 

6.  "  The  ground  can  only  sustain  and  nourish 
a  certain  quantity  of  plants  ;  and  if  that  limit  be 
passed,  the  surplus  will  be  smothered  in  the  growth. 
When  the  seeds  are  sown,  they  are  ploughed  or 
harrowed  in  ;  })loughing  is  best  in  old  ground,  as 
it  avoids  the  injuriouf  effect  of  a  beating  rain,  and 
tne  consequent  oaking  of  the  earth.  It  would  be 
also  beneficial  subsequently  to  roll  the  ground  with 
a  heavy  roller. 

7.  "  After  the  seeds  are  sown,  the  labours  of  the 
cultivator  are  suspended,  until  the  plants  are  ripe, 


100  HEMP. 

and  ill  a  state  to  be  gathered  ;  everything  in  the 
intermediate  time  being  left  to  the  operations  of  na- 
ture. If  the  season  be  favourable  until  the  plants 
are  sufficiently  high  to  shade  the  ground,  (which 
they  will  do  in  a  few  weeks,  at  six  or  eight  inches' 
height,)  there  is  strong  probability  of  a  good  crop. 
When  they  attain  that  height,  but  ^ew  articles  sus- 
tain the  effect  of  bad  seasons  better  than  hemp. 

8.  "  The  maturity  of  the  plant  is  determined  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  farina,  already  noticed,  and 
the  leaves  of  the  plant  exhibiting  a  yellowish  hue  : 
it  is  then  generally  supposed  to  be  ripe,  but  it  is 
safest  to  wait  a  few  days  longer.  Very  little  at- 
tentive observation  will  enable  any  one  to  judge 
when  it  is  fully  ripe.  In  that  respect  it  is  a  very 
accommodating  crop,  for  if  gathered  a  little  too 
soon  the  lint  is  not  materially  injured,  and  it  will 
wait  the  leisure  of  the  farmer  some  ten  days  or  a 
fortnight  after  it  is  entirely  ripe. 

9.  "  Two  modes  of  gathering  the  plants  are 
practised,  one  by  pulling  them  up  by  the  roots,  an 
easy  operation  with  an  able-bodied  man,  and  the 
other  by  cutting  them  about  two  inches  (the  nearer 
the  better)  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Each 
mode  has  its  partisans,  and  I  have  pursued  both. 

10.  "  When  pulled,  it  is  done  by  the  hand,  which 
is  better  for  the  protection  of  an  old  leather  glove. 
The  labourer  catches  twenty  or  thirty  plants  to- 
gether, with  both  hands,  and  by  a  sudden  jerk 
draws  them  w  ithout  much  difficulty.  The  opera- 
tion of  cutting  is  performed  with  a  knife,  often 
made  out  of  an  old  scythe,  resembling  a  sickle, 
not  so   long,  but  broader.     The  knife  is  applied 


HEMP.  101 

much  in  the  same  way  as  the  sickle,  except  that 
the  labourer  stoops  more. 

11.  "  Whether  pulled  or  cut,  the  plants  are  care- 
fully laid  on  the  ground,  the  evener  the  better,  to 
cure  ;  which  they  do  in  two  or  three  days,  in  dry 
weather.  A  light  rain  falling  on  them  while  lying 
down  is  thought  by  some  to  be  beneficial,  inasmuch 
as  the  leaves,  of  which  they  should  be  deprived, 
may  be  more  easily  shaken  off  or  detached.  When 
cured,  the  plants  are  set  up  in  the  field  in  which 
they  were  produced,  in  shocks  of  convenient  size, 
the  roots  or  butt  ends  resting  on  the  ground,  and 
the  tops  united  above  by  a  band  made  of  the  plants 
themselves. 

12.  "  Previous  to  putting  them  up  in  shocks, 
most  cultivators  tie  the  plants  in  small  hand  bun- 
dles, of  such  a  size  that  each  can  be  conveniently 
held  in  one  hand.  Before  the  shocks  are  formed, 
the  leaves  of  the  plants  should  be  rapidly  knocked 
off  with  a  rough  paddle  or  hooked  stick.  Some 
suffer  the  plants  to  remain  in  these  .<*hocks  until 
they  are  spread  down  to  be  rotted.  Others,  again, 
collect  the  shocks  together  as  soon  as  they  can 
command  leisure,  (and  it  is  clearly  best,)  and  form 
them  into  stacks. 

13.  "A  few  farmers  permit  these  stacks  to  re- 
main over  a  whole  year,  before  the  plants  are  ex- 
posed to  be  rotted.  I  have  frequently  done  it  with 
advantage,  and  have  at  this  time  two  crops  in 
stalks.  By  remaining  that  period  in  stalks,  the 
plants  go  through  a  sweat,  or  some  other  process, 
that  improves  very  much  the  appearance,  and,  I 
believe,  the  quality  of  the  lint ;  and  this  improve- 


102  HEMP. 

ment  fully  compensates  the  lo.ss  of  time  in  bringing 
it  to  market. 

14.  "  The  method  of  rotting  is  that  which  is 
generally  practised  in  Kentucky.  The  lint  so 
spread  is  not  so  good  for  many  purposes,  and  es- 
pecially for  rigging  and  ships,  as  when  the  plants 
have  been  rotted  by  immersion  in  water,  or,  as  it  is 
generally  termed,  water  rotted. 

15.  "The  greater  value,  and  consequently 
higher  price  of  the  article  prepared  in  the  latter 
way,  have  induced  more  and  more  of  our  farmers 
every  year  to  adopt  it ;  and  if  that  prejudice  were 
subdued,  which  every  American  production  unfor- 
tunately encounters  when  it  is  first  introduced  and 
comes  in  contact  with  a  rival  European  commod- 
ity, I  think  it  probable  that  in  a  few  years  we 
should  be  able  to  dispense  altogether  with  foreign 
hemp. 

16.  "The  obstacles  which  prevent  the  general 
practice  of  water  rotting  are,  the  want  of  water 
at  the  best  season  for  the  operation,  which  is  the 
month  of  September  ;  a  repugnance  to  the  change 
of  an  old  habit ;  and  a  persuasion,  which  has 
some  foundation,  that  handling  the  plants  after 
their  submersion  in  water  during  that  month  is  in- 
jurious to  health.  The  first  and  last  of  these  ob- 
stacles would  be  removed  by  water  rotting  early 
in  the  winter,  or  in  the  spring. 

17.  "  The  only  difference  in  the  operation,  per- 
formed at  those  seasons  and  in  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember, would  be,  that  the  plants  would  have  to 
remain  longer  in  soak  before  they  were  suffi- 
ciently rotted. 

18.  "  The  plants  are  usually  spread  down  to  be 


HEMP.  103 

dew  rotted  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  mid- 
dle of  December.  A  farmer  who  has  a  large  crop 
on  hand  puts  them  down  at  different  times,  for  his 
convenience  in  handling  and  dressing  them.  Au- 
tumnal rotting  is  more  apt  to  give  the  lint  a  dark 
and  unsightly  colour  than  winter  rotting.  The 
best  ground  to  expose  the  plants  upon  is  meadow 
or  grass  land,  lF)ut  they  are  not  unfrequently  spread 
over  the  same  field  on  which  they  grow, 

19.  "  The  length  of  time  they  ought  to  remain 
exposed,  depends  upon  the  degree  of  moisture  and 
the  temperature  of  the  weather  that  prevail.  In  a 
very  wet  and  warm  spell  five  or  six  weeks  may 
be  long  enough.  Whether  they  have  been  suffi- 
ciently rotted  or  not  is  determined  by  experiment. 
A  handful  is  taken  and  broken  by  the  hand  or  ap- 
plied to  the  brake,  when  it  can  be  easily  ascer- 
tained, by  the  facility  with  which  the  lint  can  be 
detached  from  the  stalk,  if  it  be  properly  rotted. 

20.  "  If  the  plants  remain  on  the  ground  too 
long,  the  fibres  lose  some  of  their  strength,  though 
a  few  days  longer  than  necessary,  in  cold  weather, 
will  not  do  any  injury.  If  they  are  taken  up  too 
soon,  that  is,  before  the  lint  can  be  easily  separa- 
ted fi-om  the  woody  part  of  the  stalk,  it  is  harsh, 
and  the  process  of  breaking  is  difficult  and  trou- 
blesome. Snow  rotting,  that  is,  when  the  plants, 
being  spread  out,  remain  long  enough  to  rot, 
(which,  however,  requires  a  greater  length  of  time,) 
bleaches  the  lint,  improves  the  quality,  and  makes 
it  nearly  as  valuable  as  if  it  had  been  water  rotted. 

21.  "  After  the  operation  of  rotting  is  performed, 
the  plants  are  again  collected  together,  put  in 
$liocks  or  stacks,  or,  which  is  still  better,  put  under 


104  HEMP. 

a  shed  or  some  covering.  When  it  is  designed  to 
break  and  dress  them  immediately,  they  are  fre- 
quently set  up  against  some  neighbouring  fence. 
The  best  period  for  breaking  and  dressing  is  in 
the  months  of  February  and  March,  and  the  best 
sort  of  weather,  frosty  nights  and  clear  thawing 
days.  The  brake  cannot  be  used  advantageously 
in  wet  or  moist  weather. 

22.  "  It  is  almost  invariably  used  in  this  state 
out  of  doors,  and  without  any  cover  ;  and  to  assist 
its  operation,  the  labourer  often  makes  a  large  fire 
near  it,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  drying 
the  plants  and  warming  himself.  It  could  not  be 
used  in  damp  weather  in  a  house  without  a  kiln  or 
some  other  means  of  drying  the  stalks. 

23.  "  The  brake  in  general  use  is  the  same  hand 
brake  which  was  originally  introduced  and  has 
been  always  employed  here,  reseuibling,  though 
longer  than  the  common  flax  brake.  It  is  so  well 
known  as  to  render  a  particular  description  of  it 
perhaps  unnecessary.  It  is  a  rough  contrivance, 
set  upon  four  legs,  about  two  and  a  half  feet  high. 
The  brake  consists  of  two  jaws  with  slits  on  each, 
the  lower  jaw  fixed  and  immoveable,  and  the  upper 
one  moveable,  so  that  it  may  be  lifted  up  by  means 
of  a  handle  inserted  into  a  head  or  block  at  the 
front  end  of  it. 

24.  "  The  lower  jaw  has  three  slats  or  teeth, 
made  of  tough  white  oak,  and  the  upper  two,  ar- 
ranged approaching  to  about  two  inches  in  front, 
and  in  such  manner  that  the  slats  of  the  upper 
jaw  play  between  those  of  the  lower.  These  slats 
are  about  six  or  seven  feet  in  length,  six  inches  in 
depth,  and  about  two  inches  in  thickness  in  their 


HtMP.  105 

lower  edges  ;  tliey  are  placed  edgewise,  rounded 
a  litrle  on  the  upper  edges,  which  are  sharper  than 
those  below. 

25.  "  An  ingenious  and  enterprising  gentleman 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lexington  has  been,  ever 
since  the  erection  of  the  above-mentioned  machine, 
trying  various  experiments,  by  altering  and  im- 
proving it,  to  produce  one  more  perfect,  which 
might  be  beneficially  employed  on  rotted  hemp,  to 
diminish  the  labours  of  the  brake.  He  mentioned 
the  other  day  that  all  of  them  had  failed  ;  that  he 
had  returned  to  the  old  hand  brake,  and  that  he 
was  convinced  that  it  answered  the  purpose  better 
than  any  substitute  with  which  he  was  acquainted. 

26.  "  The  quantity  of  nett  hemp  produced  to  the 
acre  is  from  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  weight, 
varying  according  to  the  fertility  and  preparation 
of  the  soil  and  the  state  of  the  season.  It  is  said 
that  the  quantity  which  any  field  will  produce  may 
be  anticipated  by  the  average  height  of  the  plants 
throughout  the  field.  Thus  if  the  plants  will  aver- 
age eight  feet  in  height,  the  acre  will  yield  eight 
hundred  weight  of  hemp  ;  each  foot  in  height  cor- 
responding to  a  hundred  weight  of  the  lint. 

27.  "  Hemp  exhausts  the  soil  slowly,  if  at  all. 
An  old  and  successful  cultivator  told  me  that  he 
had  taken  thirteen  or  fourteen  successive  crops 
from  the  same  field,  and  that  the  last  was  the 
best.  That  was  probably,  however,  owing  to  a 
concurrence  of  favourable  circumstances.  Nothing 
cleanses  and  prepares  the  earth  better  for  other 
crops  (especially  for  small  grain  or  grasses)  than 
hemp.     It  eradicates  all  weeds,  and  when  it  is 


106  HOPS. 

uiken  off,  leaves  ihe  field  not  only  clean,  but  smooth 
and  even. 

28.  "  The  rich  lands  of  Ohio.  Indiana,  and  Illinois 
are,  I  have  no  doubt,  generally  well  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  this  valuable  plant ;  and  those  states 
enjoy  some  advantages  for  the  cultivation  of  it 
which  this  does  not  possess.  Their  streams  do 
not  dry  up  as  much  as  ours,  and  they  can  consequent- 
ly employ  better  than  we  can  the  agency  of  water 
in  the  preparation  of  it. 

29.  "  Their  projected  canals,  when  completed, 
will  admit  of  its  being  carried  to  the  Atlantic  cap- 
itals at  less  expense  in  the  transportation  than  we 
must  incur  in  sending  it.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
unfortunate  state  of  slavery  among  us  gives  us,  at 
present,  probably  a  more  certain  command  of  labour 
than  those  states  have." — Henry  Clay. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


1.  '•  The  hop  is  a  native  plant.  It  is  foimd  grow- 
ing spontaneously  on  the  banks  and  intervals  of 
many  of  our  large  rivers.  There  are  several  dis- 
tinct species,  all  bearing  a  near  affinity  to  each 
other — (I  have  noticed  five.)  At  present  they  are 
cultivated  together,  promiscuously  ;  no  preference 
having  been  given  to  any  particular  one  of  them  by 
the  brewer.     But  1  am  of  the  opinion  that  there  is 


HOPS.  107 

an  essential  difference  in  their  qualities  ;  that  one 
may  be  the  best  for  pale  ale,  another  for  slrong 
beer,  and  a  third  for  porter  ;  and  I  presume,  ere 
long,  particular  attention  will  be  paid  to  ascertain 
their  different  qualities. 

2.  "  The  soil  best  calculated  for  the  production 
of  hops  I  consider  to  be  a  sandy  loam,  rather  low 
and  moist.  I  am  led  to  this  conclusion  partly  from 
my  own  observation,  and  further  (considering  na- 
ture an  infallible  instructer)  from  finding  the  lands 
which  produce  them  naturally  (intervals  and  the 
banks  of  large  rivers)  to  be  of  this  kind.  Yet,  I 
must  observe,  I  have  seen  very  fine  crops  raised 
on  very  different  soils. 

3.  "  I  should  recommend  the  following  mode  of 
preparing  the  land  and  managing  the  crop.  In  the 
fall  (October)  plough  the  land  deep,  nine  or  ten 
inches.  In  the  spring  following,  pass  a  heavy, 
sharp  iron-toothed  harrow  over  the  land  in  the  same 
direction  in  which  it  was  ploughed  ;  after  which, 
spread  your  manure  evenly  over  the  same,  sixteen 
cords  per  acre,  and  more  if  the  land  be  much  re- 
duced ;  then  cross  plough  the  land  nearly  the  same 
depth,  and  furrow  it  as  for  planting  corn,  the  fur- 
rows to  be  at  least  four  feet  apart. 

4.  "It  is  customary  to  plant  corn  or  potatoes 
with  the  hops — (I  should  prefer  potatoes.)  Plant 
every  other  hill  in  every  other  row  with  hops,  thus 
placing  the  hop  hills  at  least  eight  feet  apart.  Put 
four  cuttings  from  the  running  roots,  about  eight 
inches  in  length,  into  each  hill,  and  cover  them  the 
common  depth  of  potatoes.  Many  yards  have  been 
much  injured  by  being  planted  too  closely.     It  is 


108  HOPS. 

of  great  importance  to  have  the  hills  so  far  distant 
from  each  other  as  to  admit  a  free  current  of  air 
to  pass  through  the  yard. 

5.  "  All  the  attention  requisite  the  first  season 
after  the  hops  are  planted,  is  to  keep  them  clean 
from  weeds,  which  is  easily  done  when  hoing  the 
crop  planted  among  them.  In  the  fall,  (October,) 
to  prevent  their  being  injured  by  the  hard  frosts  of 
winter,  lay  out  of  your  cart  one  shovelful  of  com- 
post nature  on  the  top  of  each  hill ;  manure  from 
the  hog  sty  I  should  prefer. 

6.  "  In  each  following  spring,  before  the  hops 
are  opened,  as  it  is  termed,  spread  evenly  over  the 
yard  about  eight  cords  of  manure  per  acre,  (coarse, 
strawy  manure  I  should  prefer,  as  it  will  have  a 
tendency  to  keep  the  land  loose,)  and  plough  the 
field  both  ways  at  the  first  hoing.  They  require 
but  three  hoings  in  a  season,  unless  necessary  to 
subdue  the  weeds  ;  the  last  of  which  should  be 
performed  when  the  hops  are  in  full  blossom,  (about 
the  beginning  of  August.) 

7.  "  After  the  first  crop,  it  is  necessary  to  open 
the  hops,  every  spring,  by  the  middle  of  May; 
which  is  performed  by  making  four  furrows  be- 
tween the  rows,  turning  the  furrows  from  the  hills, 
and  running  the  plough  as  near  to  the  same  as  pos- 
sible without  injuring  the  main  roots.  Then  the 
earth  is  removed  from  the  roots  with  a  hoe,  all 
the  running  roots  cut  in  with  a  sharp  knife 
within  two  inches  of  the  main  roots  ;  the  tops 
of  the  main  roots  must  also  be  cut  in,  and  then 
the  hills  covered  with  earth  about  two  inches  deep. 

8.  "  The  next  thing  necessary  to  be  done  is  to 
set  the  poles.     This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the 


HOPS.  -  109 

hop  vines  begin  to  make  their  appearance.  By  so 
doing,  much  time  and  labour  will  be  saved  in  tying 
up  the  vines  to  the  poles,  as  many  of  the  vines 
will  naturally  take  to  the  poles.  There  should 
not  be  to  exceed  two  vines  to  one  pole,  nor  to  ex- 
ceed two  poles  to  one  hill,  nor  any  pole  to  exceed 
sixteen  feet  in  height.  Many  yards  have  been 
very  much  injured  by  letting  a  greater  number  of 
vines  grow  on  one  pole,  and  almost  destroyed  by 
overpoling. 

9.  "  Very  much  depends  on  paying  due  atten- 
tion, in  the  spring,  to  select  the  most  thrifty  vines, 
and  training  them  to  the  poles,  which  is  done  by 
fastening  them  to  the  poles  with  a  piece  of  yarn, 
slightly  twisted  together  with  the  thumb  and  finger. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  inspect  your  hopyard  fre- 
quently until  the  hops  begin  to  blossom,  and  '  tie 
up  the  vines,'  as  it  is  termed,  as  they  are  subject 
to  be  blown  off  the  poles  by  every  high  wind. 

10.  "  As  soon  as  the  hops  are  ripe,  which  is 
about  the  beginning  of  S3])tember,  they  must  be 
immediately  gathered  or  the  crop  is  lost.  The 
(quality  of  the  hops  depends  co.isiderably  oa  their 
being  picked  clean  from  leaves  and  sterns.  Thi 
labour  of  picking  or  gathering  the  hops  may  be 
well  performed  by  women  and  children,  having 
one  man  to  a  bin  to  handle  the  poles  and  to  inspect 
the  pickers. 

11."  The  bin  is  a  wooden  box,  about  nine  feet 
long,  three  feet  wide,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  high, 
made  of  thin  pine  boards,  (that  it  may  be  easily 
moved  over  the  yard,)  across  which  the  poles  are 
laid,  and  into  which  the  hops  are  picked  by  hand. 
Care  should  be  taken,  when  gathcrinir  the  hops,  to 


UO  HOPS, 

cut  the  vines  two  feet  from  the  ground,  that  the 
roots  may  not  be  injured  by  bleeding. 

12.  "The  most  important  part  in  the  manage- 
ment of  hops  is  the  curing  or  drying  of  them. 
Here  I  would  note  that  hops  always  grow  first 
sort,  and  that  all  second  sort  and  refuse  hops  are 
made  so  by  unfortunate  or  unskilful  management. 
Much  depends  on  having  a  well-constructed  kiln. 
For  the  convenience  of  putting  the  hops  on  the 
kiln,  the  side  of  the  hill  is  generally  chosen  for  its 
situation.  Care  should  be  taken  that  it  be  a  dry 
situation. 

13.  The  kiln  should  be  dug  out  the  same  big- 
ness at  the  bottom  as  at  the  top  ;  the  side  \valls 
laid  up  perpendicularly,  and  tilled  in  solid  with 
stone,  to  give  it  a  tunnel  form.  Twelve  feet 
square  at  the  top,  two  feet  square  at  the  bottom, 
and  at  least  eight  feet  deep,  is  deemed  a  conve- 
nient size.  On  the  top  of  the  wa.lls  sills  are  laid, 
having  joists  let  into  them  in  like  manner  as  for- 
iaying  a  floor  ;  on  which  laths,  about  one  and  a 
half  inches  wide,  are  nailed,  leaving  open  spaces 
between  them  three  fourths  of  an  inch,  over  which 
a  thin  linen  cloth  is  spread  and  nailed  at  the  edges 
to  the  sills. 

14.  "  A  Jboard  about  twelve  inches  wide  is  set 
up  on  each  side  of  the  kiln,  on  the  irmer  edge  of 
the  sill,  to  form  a  bin  to  receive  the  hops.  The 
larger  the  stones  made  use  of  in  the  construction 
of  the  kiln,  the  better  :  as  it  will  give  a  more 
steady  and  dense  heal.  The  inside  of  the  kiln 
should  be  well  plastered  with  mortar,  to  make  it 
completely  air  tight.  Charcoal  (that  made  from 
yellow  birch  or  mnple   I  should  prefer)  is  the  only 


HOPS.  1 1 1 

fuel  proper  to  be  used  in  drying  hops.  The  kihi 
should  be  well  heated  before  any  hops  are  put  on, 
and  carefully  attended  to  keep  a  steady  and  regu- 
lar heat. 

15.  "  Fifty  pounds  of  hops,  when  dried,  is  the 
largest  quantity  that  should  be  dried  at  one  time, 
on  a  kiln  of  this  size  ;  unless  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  put  on  that  quantity,  a  less  would  dry  better. 
The  green  hops  should  be  spread  as  evenly  and  as 
lightly  as  possible  over  the  kiln.  The  fire  at  first 
should  be  moderate,  but  it  may  be  increased  as  the 
hops  dry  and  the  steam  is  evaporated. 

16.  "  Hops  should  not  remain  long  in  the  bin  or 
bag  after  they  are  picked,  as  they  will  very  soon 
heat  and  become  insipid.  The  hops  should  not 
be  stirred  on  the  kiln  until  they  are  completely 
and  fully  dried.  Then  they  should  be  removed 
from  the  kiln  into  a  dry  room  and  laid  in  a  heap, 
and  there  remain,  unmoved  and  unstirred,  until 
bagged,  which  is  done  with  a  screw,  having  a  box 
made  of  plank,  the  size  the  bag  is  wished,  into 
which  the  cloth  is  laid,  and  the  hops  screwed  into 
the  box,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the  sides 
may  be  removed,  and  the  bag  sewed  together 
while  in  the  press. 

17.  "  The  hops,  after  lying  a  few  days,  will 
gather  a  partial  moisture,  called  a  sweat.  The 
sweat  will  probably  begin  to  subside  in  about  eight 
days,  at  which  time,  and  before  the  sweat  is  ofT, 
they  ought  to  be  bagged  in  clear  dry  weather.  As 
the  exact  time  when  the  hops  Avill  begin  to  sweat, 
and  when  the  sweat  will  begin  to  subside  or  dry- 
off,  (the  proper  time  to  bag  them,)  will  vary  with 
the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  it  will  be  necessary  to 


112  HOPS. 

examine  the  hops  from  day  to  day,  which  is  easily 
done  by  taking  some  of  them  from  the  centre  of  the 
heap  with  your  hand, 

18.  "  If  on  examination  you  find  the  hops  to  be 
very  damp,  and  their  colour  altering,  which  will 
be  the  case  if  they  were  not  completely  dried  on 
the  kiln  and  not  otherwise,  you  must  overhaul 
them  and  dry  them  in  the  air.  The  most  conve- 
nient size  for  a  bag  of  hops  to  handle  and  trans- 
port, is  about  five  feet  in  length,  and  to  contain 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

19.  "  The  best  bagdng  is  coarse  strong  tow 
cloth  of  our  domestic  manufacturing  ;  next  to  that 
Russia  hemp  bagging.  The  East  India  sugar  and 
gimny  bags,  so  called,  ought  never  to  be  used. 
The  sugar  bags  are  of  an  unreasonable  weight, 
and  both  they  and  the  gunny  bags  are  of  no  value 
to  the  brewer  ;  whereas  the  other  bags  are  worth 
prime  cost. 

20.  "  It  is  now  common  for  those  who  have  en- 
tered considerably  into  the  cultivation  of  hops  to 
build  houses  over  their  kilns,  which  in  wet  weather 
are  very  convenient ;  otherwise,  a  kiln  in  the  open 
air  would,  in  my  opinion,  be  preferable.  It  is 
necessary  to  have  these  buildings  well  ventilated 
with  doors  and  windows  ;  and  to  have  these  kept 
open  night  and  day,  except  in  wet  weather,  and 
then  shut  those  only  which  are  necessary  to  keep 
out  the  rain. 

21.  "If  a  ventilator  was  put  in  the  roof  of  the 
building,  directly  over  the  centre  of  the  kiln,  about 
six  feel  square,  built  like  those  in  breweries  and 
distilleries,  I  am  of  the  opinion  it  would  be  found 
very   advantageous.     I    have    seen  many  lots  of 


HOPS. 


113 


hops  much  mjured  both  in  colour  and  flavour  by 
being  dried  in  close  buildings. 

22.  "  Where  the  houses  over  the  kilns  are  built 
large,  for  the  purpose  of  storing  the  hops  as  they 
are  dried,  which  is  a  great  saving  of  labour,  a  close 
partition  should  be  made  between  the  kilns  and  the 
room  in  which  the  hops  are  stored,  to  prevent  the 
damp  steam  from  the  kilns  coming  to  them,  as  it 
will  colour  them,  and  injure  their  flavour  and  qual- 
ity very  much. 

23.  "  I  expect  that  many  of  our  farmers  will  ob- 
ject to  the  mode  of  manuring  hops  which  I  have 
recommended,  their  common  practice  being  to  put 
the  manure  in  the  hills  when  they  plant  the  hops, 
and  afterward  to  apply  the  manure  on  the  hills  at 
the  first  and  second  hoings.  I  find  the  hop  roots 
very  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  worms,  and  to 
decay. 

24.  "  My  opinion  is,  that  the  manure  in  the  hill 
has  a  tendency  to  produce  the  worms,  and  its  fer- 
mentation at  their  roots  to  cause  their  decay ;  and 
that  the  crop  is  not  more,  if  as  a;bundant,  as  when 
manured  in  the  manner  I  have  recommended  ; 
and,  further,  that  a  hopyard  manured  in  this  man- 
ner will  continue  in  a  healthy  state  for  many 
years. 

25.  "  I  also  expect  that  the  quantity  of  ma- 
nure I  have  recommended  v;ill  be  objected  to 
by  many,  it  being  a  commonly  received  opinion 
that  hops  should  have  little  or  no  manure.  I 
find  it  a  general  complaint  among  the  farmers 
where  hops  have  been  cultivated  many  years, 
that  the  quantity  raised  per  acre  does  not  exceed 
the  one  half  raised  by  their  ancestors  on  the  same 

H 


114  RUTABAGA. 

land ;  inferring  that  the  '  hops  are  running  out,'  as 
it  is  termed,  and  cannot  now  be  cuhivated  to  ad- 
vantage. 

26.  "  Hops,  1  believe,  in  common  with  all  sorts 
of  grain  and  vegetables,  flourish  best  and  produce 
the  finest  crops  when  cultivated  on  new  lands, 
which  require  little  or  no  manure  ;  and  such  were 
the  lands  which  their  ancestors  cultivated.  The 
same  complaint,  I  presume,  would  be  made  against 
all  sorts  of  grain  and  vegetables,  if  raised  with 
little  or  no  manure,  on  lands  that  have  long  been 
cultivated.  From  my  own  observations,  I  am  con- 
fident that  no  crop  can  be  more  improved  and  in- 
creased by  high  cultivation  than  hops." — William 
Blanchard,  Jr. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 

RUTABAGA. 

1.  The  following  is  an  account  of  the  method 
of  cultivating  rutabaga,  adopted  by  the  Rev.  Henry 
Colman,  in  obtaining  a  crop  for  which  he  received 
a  premium  of  twenty  dollars  from  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  Society,  in  the  year  1830. 
From  the  New  England  Farmer,  vol.  ix.,  p.  284. 

2.  "  Gentlemen — Accompanying  this  you  have 
the  certificates  of  a  crop  of  rutabaga  raised  this 
year  on  my  farm  in  Lynn.  From  these  it  will 
appear  that  on  an  acre,  measured  by  a  sworn  sur- 
veyor,  on  one  side  of  the    field,   were  gathered 


RUTABAGA.  115 

seven  hundred  and  A)rty-one  baskelfuls ;  and  that 
forty  baskets  of  the  above  named  weighed  at  the 
town  scales  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  net  weight. 

3.  "  This,  allowing  fifty-six  pounds  to  a  bushel, 
■the  standard  weight  assumed  by  the  society,  would 
give  a  orop  of  nine  hundred  and  three  bushels  to 
the  acre.  The  turnips  were  planted  on  the  twenty- 
ninth  of  June  and  second  of  July ;  about  one 
pound  and  a  half  of  seed  was  used  for  the  acre ; 
and  they  were  gathered  and  stored  in  cellars  and 
in  the  barn,  in  the  last  part  of  November. 

4.  "  The  ground  on  which  they  grew  is  a  good 
soil,  neither  wet  nor  dry,  and  bore  the  last  year  an 
abundant  crop  of  onions,  and  corn  the  year  prece- 
ding the  last.  It  was  well  manured  at  both  times, 
and  in  fine  tilth.  It  was  manured  with  at  least  six 
cords  to  the  acre  of  barn  manure  the  last  spring, 
and  sowed  again  to  onions ;  but  the  seed  entirely 
failing,  it  was  ploughed,  harrowed,  furrows  struck 
out,  and  about  eight  cords  of  barn  manure  spread 
in  the  furrows  ;  ploughed  again  so  as  by  a  back 
furrow  to  form  a  ridge  over  the  manure,  and 
the  seed  sown  with  a  small  drill  harrow  on  the 
ridges,  making  the  rows  about  twenty  inches 
asunder. 

5.  "  As  soon  as  the  plants  were  of  sufficient  size, 
a  drill  harrow,  with  small  shares  fixed  to  it,  to  cut 
off  all  the  weeds,  was  passed  through  the  rows  ; 
and  the  plants  were  thinned  with  a  small  weeding 
hoe  to  the  distance  of  about  eight  inches  apart, 
and  the  vacant  places  filled  up  by  transplanting 
from  the  supernumerary  plants.  They  were  once 
more  harrowed    and  cleaned,  which  was  a  very 


116  ilLTABAGA. 

small  labour ;  and  owing  to  the  very  unpropitious 
weather,  were  not  harvested  until  very  late. 

6.  "  Some  of  them  were  very  large ;  one 
weighed  fifteen  pounds,  and  many  were  nearly  as 
large.  The  exact  expense  of  cultivating  the  acre 
cannot  be  estimated,  as  it  was  intermixed  with 
other  farmwork  ;  but  the  whole,  from  the  sowing 
to  the  gathering,  was  not  two  thirds  of  the  labour 
usually  bestowed  on  planting,  cultivating,  and 
gathering  an  acre  of  potatoes. 

7.  "  My  Swedish  turnips  the  last  year,  of  which 
1  raised  considerable  quantities,  were  fed  off  to  my 
oxen,  dry  cows,  young  stock,  and  fatting  sheep. 
To  the  cattle  they  were  of  very  great  advantage  ; 
and  for  feeding  sheep,  they  proved  the  last  year, 
by  an  accurate  account,  worth  from  ten  to  twelve 
and  a  half  cents  per  bushel.  The  man  who  has 
the  care  of  my  stock  considers  them  as  among  the 
most  profitable  feed  which  can  be  given  either  to 
fatting  or  to  store  cattle.  Three  years'  experi- 
ment has  increased  their  value  very  much  for  these 
purposes  in  my  ov/n  estimation." 

8.  A  correspondent  in  the  New  England  Far- 
mer, vol.  xi.,  p.  277,  writes  thus:  "A  wish  to 
have  others  profit  by  my  experience  has  induced 
me  to  send  you,  Mr.  Editor,  half  a  sheet  of  re- 
marks on  the  culture  of  the  rutabaga  as  a  food 
fur  domestic  animals.  I  have  cultivated  from 
half  an  acre  to  three  acres  of  this  root  every  year 
for  thirteen  years  in  succession,  and  feel  compe- 
tent to  give  rules  for  its  culture,  and  confidence 
in  recommending  it  as  a  valuable  and  profitable 
crop. 


RUTABAGA.  117 

9.  "  The  soil  must  be  rich  and  dry  :  and  the 
more  it  inclines  to  a  sand  loam  ihe  better.  Chiy 
is  the  worst,  and  wet  soils  will  not  answer  at  all. 
Pnparations.  My  general  practice  has  been,  to 
manure  well  a  piece  of  pHStiiie,  or  clover  ley,  from 
which  the  hay  has  first  been  cut,  plough  it  hand- 
somely over,  and  harrow  it  well. 

10.  "  Soiling,  cj c.  I  sow  in  rows,  at  two  and 
a  half  or  three  feet,  with  a  drill  harrow.  The 
sooner  the  preceding  operations  succeed  each 
other  the  better.  I  have  sown  broadcast,  but  the 
expense  o^  thinning  and  culture  is  increased.  A." 
man  will  drill  in  three  or  four  acres  a  day.  We 
allow  a  pound  of  seed  to  the  acre,  though  half  this, 
properly  distributed,  is  enough.  S«)w  from  ihe 
twenty-sixth  of  June  to  the  tenth  of  July. 

11.  "  Culture.  I  use  a  cultivator,  that  may  be 
graduated  to  the  space  between  the  rows,  drawn 
by  a  horse,  as  soon  as  the  plants  can  be  well  dis- 
tinguished. This  is  repeated  in  a  few  days,  back 
and  forward,  and  the  implement  carried  so  close 
to  the  drills,  as  to  leave  only  strips  of  from  four 
to  ten  inches,  which  are  then  thoroughly  cleaned 
with  a  skim  hoe,  and  the  plants  thinned  to  eight 
and  ten  inches'  distance.  The  cultivator  soon  fol- 
lows for  a  third  time,  and  if  necessary,  the  skim 
hoe,  when  the  crop  is  generally  left  till  harvest. 
The  great  aim  is  to  extirpate  the  weeds,  and  to  do 
this  while  they  are  small. 

12.  "  Harvesting  is  postponed  as  long  as  the 
season  will  permit.  The  roots  are  then  pulled  up 
and  laid  on  the  ground,  the  tops  of  the  two  rows 
towards  each  other.     The  pullers  are  followed  by 


lis  RUTABAGA. 

a  man  or  boy  with  a  bill  hook,  who  with  a  light 
blow  cuts  the  lops  as  fast  as  three  or  four  can  pull. 
Three  men  will  in  this  way  harvest,  of  a  good  crop, 
three  hundred  bushels  in  a  day. 

13.  "  The  tops  are  gathered  into  heaps  and  taken 
to  the  yard  in  carts  daily,  for  the  stock,  until  they 
are  consumed.  An  acre  will  give  from  five  to  ten 
cartloads  of  tops.  The  roots  are  piled  in  the  field 
if  dry ;  the  pits,  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  broad, 
covered  with  straw  and  earth,  and  as  cold  weather 
approaches,  with  manure,  to  prevent  frost,  N.  B. 
With  a  crowbar  make  one  or  more  holes  on  the 
crown  of  the  pit,  which  must  be  left  open,  to  let 
off  the  rarifie4  air  and  prevent  the  roots  from 
heating. 

14.  "  Use.  The  tops  serve  for  autumn.  As 
soon  as  the  mild  weather  of  spring  will  justify,  1 
break  through  the  frost,  and  take  the  contents  of 
a  pit  to  my  barn,  and  cover  the  roots  with  straw 
or  hay.  From  thence  they  are  fed  to  my  stock, 
being  first  chopped  up  with  a  snik,  (Dutch  meat- 
chopper,) or  spade.  They  are  excellent  for  sheep, 
especially  for  ewes  that  have  young  ;  and  hogs 
and  horses  eat  them  freely.  Steamed,  they  are 
used  in  the  north  of  England  for  horses  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  grain. 

15.  "I  have  fattened  sheep  and  bullocks  upon 
them  with  profit.  They  constitute,  particularly 
from  February  to  June,  an  excellent  culinary  veg- 
etable for  the  table.  A  bullock  will  thrive  fast 
upon  two  bushels  a  day,  and  will  consume  hardly 
any  hay,  and  requires  no  drink. 

16.  "  Product  and  Cost.  My  average  crop  has 
been  six  hundred  bushels  per  acre,  though  others 


PASTURE.  119 

have  raised  much  heavier  products.  The  cost  in 
manure  and  labour,  when  they  are  secured  for 
winter,  has  been  from  two  to  three  cents  per 
bushel." 


CHAPTER  XXV 


1.  "To  manage  pasture  land  advantageously,  it 
should  be  well  fenced  in  small  lots,  of  four,  eight, 
or  twelve  acres,  according  to  the  largeness  of  one's 
farm  and  stock  ;  and  these  lots  should  be  bor- 
dered at  least  with  rows  of  trees.  It  is  best  that 
trees  of  some  kind  or  other  should  be  growing 
scattered  in  every  point  of  a  pasture,  so  that  the 
cattle  may  never  have  to  go  far  in  a  hot  hour  to 
obtain  a  comfortable  shade.  The  grass  will  spring 
earlier  in  lots  that  are  thus  sheltered,  and  they 
will  bear  drought  the  better.  But  too  great  a  pro- 
portion of  shade  should  be  avoided,  as  it  will  give 
a  sourness  to  the  grass. 

S.  "  Small  lots  thus  sheltered  are  not  left  bare 
of  snow  so  early  in  the  spring  as  larger  ones  lying 
bare,  as  fences  and  trees  cause  more  of  it  to  re- 
main upon  the  ground.  The  cold  winds  in  March 
and  April  hurt  the  grass  much  when  the  ground 
is  bare.  And  the  winds  in  winter  will  not  suffer 
snow  to  lie  deep  on  land  that  is  too  open  to  the 
rake  of  winds  and  storms. 

3.  "  It  is  hurtful  to  pastures  to  turn  in  cattle  too 


120  PASTURE, 

early  in  the  spring  ;  and  most  hurtful  to  those  pas- 
tures in  which  the  grass  springs  earUest,  as  in  very 
low  and  wet  pastures.  Potching  such  land  in  the 
spring  destroys  the  sward,  so  that  it  will  produce 
the  less  quantity  of  grass.  Neither  should  cattle 
be  let  into  any  pasture  until  the  grass  is  so  much 
grown  as  to  afford  them  a  good  bite,  so  that  they 
may 'fill  themselves  v/ithout  rambling  over  the 
whole  lot. 

4.  "  The  twentieth  of  May  is  early  enough  to 
turn  cattle  into  almost  any  of  our  pastures.  Out 
of  some  they  should  be  kept  later.  The  driest 
pastures  should  be  used  first,  though  in  them  the 
grass  is  shortest,  that  the  potching  of  the  ground 
in  the  wettest  may  be  prevented. 

5.  "  The  bushes  and  shrubs  that  rise  in  pastures 
should  be  cut  in  the  most  likely  times  to  destroy 
them.  Thistles  and  other  bad  weeds  should  be 
cut  down  before  their  seeds  have  ripened ;  and 
ant  hills  should  be  destroyed.  Much  may  be  done 
towards  subduing  a  bushy  pasture  by  keeping  cat- 
tle hungry  in  it.  A  continual  browsing  keeps 
down  the  young  shoots,  and  totally  kills  many  of 
the  bushes.  Steers  and  heifers  may  mend  such  a 
pasture,  and  continue  growing. 

6.  "  But  as  to  cleared  pastures,  it  is  not  right  to 
turn  in  all  sorts  of  cattle  promiscuously.  Milch 
kine,  working  oxen,  and  fatting  beasts,  should 
have  the  first  feeding  of  an  enclosure  ;  afterward, 
sheep  and  horses.  When  the  first  lot  is  thus  fed 
off,  it  should  be  shut  up,  and  the  dung  that  has 
been  dropped  should  be  beaten  to  pieces,  and  well 
scattered.  Afterward,  the  second  pasture  should 
be  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  rest  in 


PASTURE,  121 

course,  feeding  the  wettest  pasture  after  the  driest, 
that  the  soil  may  be  less  poiched. 

7.  "  Something  considerable  is  saved  by  letting 
all  sorts  of  grazing  animals  take  tljeir  turn  in  a 
pasture.  By  means  of  this,  nearly  all  the  herbage 
produced  will  be  eaten  ;  much  of  which  would 
otherwise  be  lost.  Horses  will  eat  the  leavings 
of  horned  cattle  ;  and  sheep  will  eat  some  things 
that  both  the  one  and  the  other  leave. 

8.  "  But  if  in  a  course  of  pasturing,  by  means  of 
a  fruitful  year,  or  a  scanty  stock  of  cattle,  some 
grass  of  a  good  kind  should  run  up  to  seed  and 
not  be  eaten,  it  need  not  be  regretted  ;  for  a  nevv 
supply  of  seed  will  fill  the  ground  with  nevv  roots, 
which  are  better  than  old  ones.  And  I  know  of 
no  grass  that  never  needs  renewing  from  the  seed. 

9.  "  A  farmer  need  not  to  be  told,  that  if  he 
turn  swine  into  a  pasture,  they  should  have  rings 
in  their  noses,  unless  brakes  and  other  weeds  need 
to  be  rooted  out.  Swine  may  do  service  in  this 
way.  They  should  never  have  the  first  of  the 
feed  ;  for  they  will  foul  the  grass,  and  make  it  dis- 
tasteful to  horses  and  cattle. 

10.  "  Let  the  stock  of  a  farmer  be  greater  or 
less,  he  should  have  at  least  four  enclosures  of 
pasture  land.  One  enclosure  may  be  fed  two 
weeks,  and  then  shut  up  to  grow  ;  then  another. 
Each  one  will  recruit  well  in  six  weeks  ;  and  each 
will  have  this  space  of  time  to  recruit.  But  in  the 
latter  part  of  October,  the  cattle  may  range  through 
all  the  lots,  unless  some  one  has  become  too  wet 
and  soft.  In  this  case,  it  ought  to  be  shut  up,  and 
kept  so  till  feeding  time  the  next  year. 

11.  "But  tha!  farmers  mavnot'be  troubled  with 


122  PASTURE. 

low  miry  pastures,  they  should  drain  them,  if  it  be 
practicable,  or  can  be  done  consistently  with  their 
other  business.  If  they  should  produce  a  smaller 
quantity  of  grass  afterward,  it  will  be  sweeter,  and 
of  more  value.  It  is  well  known,  that  cattle  fatted 
in  a  dry  pasture  have  better-tasted  flesh  than  those 
fatted  in  a  wet  one.  In  the  old  countries  it  will 
fetch  a  higher  price.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
as  to  mutton. 

12.  "  Feeding  pastures  in  rotation  is  of  greater 
advantage  than  some  are  apt  to  imagine.  One  acre, 
managed  according  to  the  above  directions,  will 
turn  to  better  account,  as  some  say  who  have  prac- 
tised it,  than  three  acres  in  the  common  way. 

13.  "  By  the  common  way  I  would  be  under- 
stood to  mean,  having  weak  and  tottering  fences, 
that  will  drop  of  themselves  in  a  few  months,  and 
never  can  resist  the  violence  of  disorderly  cattle  ; 
sufl^ering  weeds  and  bushes  to  overrun  the  land  ; 
keeping  all  the  pasture  land  in  one  enclosure  ; 
turning  in  all  sorts  of  stock  together ;  suffering  the 
fence  to  drop  down  in  autumn,  so  as  to  lay  the  pas- 
ture common  to  all  the  cattle  and  swine  that  please 
to  enter ;  and  not  putting  up  the  fence  again  till 
the  first  of  May,  or  later.  Such  management  is 
too  common  in  all  parts  of  this  country  with  which 
I  am  most  acquainted.  I  would  hope  it  is  not  uni- 
versal. 

14.  "  Land  which  is  constantly  used  as  pasture 
will  be  enriched.  Therefore  it  is  advisable  to  mow 
a  pasture  lot  once  in  three  or  four  years,  if  the 
surface  be  so  level  as  to  admit  of  it.  In  the  mean 
time,  to  make  amends  for  the  loss  of  pasture,  a 
mowing  lot  may  be  pastured.     It  will  thus  be  im- 


**'  PASTURE.  123 

proved  ;  and  if  the  grass  do  not  grow  so  rank 
afterward  in  the  pasture  lot,  it  will  be  more  clear 
of  weeds,  and  bear  belter  grass.  Alternate  pastu- 
ring and  mowing  has  the  advantage  of  saving  a 
good  deal  of  expense  and  trouble  in  manuring  the 
mowing  grounds. 

15.  "  Though  pastures  need  manuring  less  than 
other  lands,  yet,  when  bushes,  bad  weeds,  <fec. 
are  burned  upon  them,  the  ashes  should  be  spread 
thinly  over  the  surface.  The  grass  will  thus  be 
improved  ;  and  grass  seeds  should  be  sown  upon 
the  burnt  spots,  that  no  part  may  be  vacant  of 
grass. 

16.  "  Sheep,  calves,  and  horses,  unless  they 
are  worked,  it  is  said,  require  no  water  in  their 
pastures.  The  want  of  water  induces  them  to 
feed  in  the  night,  when  the  dew  is  on  and  the 
grass  the  more  nutritious.  Cows,  however,  want 
pure  water.  In  pastures  which  are  on  hillsides, 
water  may  generally  be  obtained  by  digging  hori- 
zontally into  the  side  of  the  hill  till  it  is  found, 
and  then  carrying  it  out  with  a  pipe." — Deane. 

17.  We  learn  from  English  writers  on  agri- 
culture, that  three  modes  have  been  adopted  in 
Great  Britain  for  consuming  clover  and  other  herb- 
age plants  by  pasturing.  These  are  tethering,  or 
fastening  the  feeding  animal  to  a  stake,  hurdling, 
and  free  pasturage.  In  the  Agricultural  Report  of 
Aberdeenshire,  it  is  stated  that  there  are  some  cases 
in  which  the  plan  of  tethering  can  be  practised 
with  more  profit  than- even  soiling, 

18.  "  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Peterhead,  for  in- 
stance, they  tether  milch  cows  on  their  grass  fields, 
in  a  regular  and  systematic  method,  moving  each 


124  PASTURE. 

tether  forward  in  a  straight  line,  not  above  one 
foot  at  a  time,  so  as  to  prevent  the  cows  from  tread- 
ing on  the  grass  that  is  to  be  eaten  ;  care  beii»g  al- 
ways taken  to  move  the  tether  forward,  hke  a  per- 
son cutting  clover  with  a  scythe,  from  one  end  of 
the  field  to  the  other. 

19.  "  In  this  way,  a  greater  number  of  cows  can 
be  kept  on  the  same  quantity  of  grass  than  by  any 
other  plan,  except  where  it  grows  high  enough  to 
be  cut  and  given  them  green  in  houses.  In  one 
instance,  the  system  was  carried  to  great  perfec- 
tion by  a  gentleman  who  kept  a  few  sheep  upon 
longer  tethers,  following  the  cows. 

20.  "  Sometimes  also  he  tethered  horses  after- 
ward upon  the  same  field,  which  prevented  any 
possible  waste,  for  the  tufts  of  grass  produced  by 
the  dung  of  one  species  of  animal  will  be  eaten 
by  those  of  another  kind  without  reluctance.  This 
mode  was  peculiarly  calculated  for  the  cowfeed- 
ers  in  Peterhead  :  ^s  from  the  smallness  of  their 
holdings  they  could  not  keep  servants  to  cut  or 
horses  to  carry  home  the  grass  to  their  houses,  to 
be  consumed  in  a  green  state. 

21.  *'  In  hurdling  off  clover  or  herbage  crops,  a 
portion  of  the  field  is  enclosed  by  hurdles,"  [move- 
able wooden  fences,]  "  in  which  sheep  are  confined, 
and  as  the  crop  is  consumed  the  pen  is  changed  to 
a  fresh  place,  until  the  whole  is  fed  ofif.  This 
practice  is  very  extensively  adopted  at  Hoikham," 
[England,]  "  and  is  peculiarly  calculated  for  light 
and  dry  soils.  Its  advantages  are,  that  the  grass 
is  more  economically  consumed  ;  that  the  stock 
thrives  better,  having  daily  a  fresh  bite  ;  and  that 


PASTUHE.  125 

the  dung  which  falls,  being  more  concentrated,  is 
more  likely  to  be  of  use." — Loudon. 

22.  Water  should  be  provided  for  every  field 
under  pasture  ;  and  also  shelter  and  shade,  either 
by  a  {q\v  trees,  or  by  a  portable  shed,  which  may 
be  moved  with  the  stock  from  one  enclosure  to 
another.  Where  there  are  no  trees,  rubbing  posts 
are  also  a  desirable  addition.  In  Germany  they 
have  portable  sheds  which  are  employed  both  in 
summer  and  winter,  and  generally  with  a  piece  of 
rock  salt  fixed  to  a  post  for  the  cattle  to  lick  at 
will. 

23.  Some  graziers  mix  a  fev/  sheep  and  one  or 
two  colts  in  each  pasture,  which  both  turn  to  ac- 
count, and  do  little  injury  to  the  grazing  cattle. 
In  some  cases,  we  are  told  that  sheep  are  benefi- 
cial to  pastures,  by  eating  down  and  destroying 
white  weed,  and  some  other  useless  and  pernicious 
plants. 

24.  So  various  is  the  appetite  of  animals,  that 
there  is  scarcely  any  plant  which  is  not  chosen 
by  some  and  left  untouched  by  others.  The  fol- 
lowing is  said  to  be  a  fact,  known  and' practised 
on  by  graziers  in  Holland.  When  eight  cows 
have  been  in  a  pasture,  and  can  no  longer  obtain 
nourishment,  two  horses  will  do  very  well  there 
for  some  days,  and  when  nothing  is  left  for  the 
horses,  four  sheep  will  live  upon  it ;  this  not  only 
proceeds  from  their  differing  in  the  choice  of 
plants,  but  from  the  formation  of  their  mouths, 
which  are  not  equally  adapted  to  lay  hold  of  the 
grass. 

25.  Stocking  a  pasture  with  as  many  sheep  as 
it  will  support  is  recommended  for  forming  a  ten- 


126  CULTURE    OF    SILK. 

der  herbage,  and  causing  the  grass  to  mat  or  grow 
very  thick  at  the  bottom.  An  English  writer  says, 
"  In  turning  out  horses  to  grass  in  the  spring,  it  is 
usual  to  choose  the  forenoon  of  a  fine  day  to  do  it 
in  ;  the  natural  consequence  is,  the  horse  fills  his 
belly  during  the  sunshine,  and  lies  down  to  rest 
during  the  cold  of  the  night,  thereby  probably  ex- 
posing himself  to  disorders.  In  some  parts  of 
Yorkshire  a  better  practice  prevails  :  the  horse  is 
turned  out  at  bedtime  ;  the  consequence  is,  he 
eats  all  night,  and  sleeps  in  the  sunshine  of  the 
next  dav." 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE    CULTURE    OF    SILK. 

1.  The  principal  articles  made  use  of  for  cloth- 
ing among  civilized  people  are  wool,  flax,  cotton, 
and  silk,  all  of  which  consisting  of  fine  fibres, 
those  fibres  are  twisted  into  threads,  and  woven 
into  various  kinds  of  cloth.  Each  of  these  pos- 
sesses, perhaps,  some  peculiar  advantage  in  quality 
which  the  others  do  not ;  but  that  which  univer- 
sally holds  a  most  decided  preference  over  all  the 
others  is  silk. 

2.  It  is  superior  in  strength,  and  infinitely  so  in 
softness  and  in  beauty.  It  is  produced  by  a  large 
insect  of  the  caterpillar  kind  called  in  English  the 
silkworm,  but  in  natural  history  is  commonly  called 
the    hoinhix    mori    or    mulberry    caterpillar.     This 


CULTURE    OF    SILK.  127 

worm  spins  out  the  silk  from  the  substance  of  its 
own  body,  winding  itself  up  in  a  ball,  which,  when 
finished,  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  robin's 

egg. 

3.  From  this  ball,  which  is  called  a  cocoon^  the 
silk  is  wound  off  for  use,  in  a  continuous  thread, 
from  the  outside  to  the  centre,  which  contains  the 
chrysalis^  or  the  remains  of  the  worm  when  it  has 
done  spinning.  If  the  silk  is  not  wound  off  in  a 
few  days  after  the  cocoon  is  completed,  the  chrys- 
alis changes  its  form,  and  comes  out  in  that  of  a 
moth  or  small  butterfly,  of  a  whitish-gray  colour, 
and  of  a  very  clumsy  form,  being  incapable  of 
flying,  though  it  has  wings. 

4.  In  a  few  hours  after  leaving  the  cocoon  the 
female  moth  lays  her  eggs,  which  are  about  the 
size  of  a  mustard  seed,  and  from  two  to  four  hun- 
dred in  number.  These  eggs  are  preserved  in  a 
cool  place  until  a  fresh  crop  or  litter  of  worms  is 
wanted,  when  they  are  placed  in  a  warm  atmo- 
sphere, where  they  hatch  spontaneously  in  a  short 
time. 

5.  The  worms  are  at  first  very  small,  but  being 
fed  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry  tree,  they  grow 
to  nearly  or  quite  the  size  and  length  of  a  fingei, 
and  commence  spinning  cocoons  as  before.  The 
cocoons  from  which  the  silk  is  to  be  wound  or 
reeled  are  exposed  to  heat  by  steaming,  baking,  or 
otherwise  to  kill  the  chrysalis. 


128 


HISTORY    OF    SILK. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

HISTORY    OF    SILK. 


i.  The  discovery  of  the  use  of  silk,  and  the 
modes  of  procuring  and  manufacturing  it,  was  un- 
questionably made  by  the  Chinese  at  a  period  of 
very  remote  antiquity  ;  we  know  nothing,  there- 
fore, of  its  early  history,  except  what  we  learn 
from  them. 

2.  The  account  they  give  ys  is,  that  it  was  dis- 
covered in  its  native  forests  of  mulberry  ;  and 
that  about  seven  hundred  years  before  the  days  of 
Abraham,  an  emperor  called  Haung-to,  whose 
name  they  hold  in  great  veneration,  persuaded  his 
wife,  Si-ling-chi,  to  have  the  silkworms  gathered 
and  domesticated,  and  to  teach  his  subjects  the 
management  of  them,  and  use  of  the  silk.  If  this 
account  be  true",  the  lirst  silk  grower  was  an 
emperor. 

3.  'J'he  silk  business,  however,  appears  to  have 
been  for  a  long  time,  probably  for  many  ages,  con- 
fined to  a  part  of  the  Chinese  dominions,  called 
Serica.  But  in  process  of  time,  garments  com- 
posed of  it  were  carried  by  traders,  travelling  in 
caravans,  through  trackless  sands  and  deserts  to 
Syria  and  Egypt,  a  journey  which  it  took  about 
eight  or  nine  months  to  perform. 

4.  These  garments  were  sold  to  merchants,  who 
again  sold  them  at  enormous  prices,  and  they 
were,  no  doubt,  for  a  long  period  the  principal 
source  of  wealth  to  the  last-mentioned  nations. 


HISTORY    or    SILK.  12^ 

5.  This  tedious  overland  carrying  trade  was, 
for  a  long  time,  chiefly  monopolized  by  the  Per- 
sians, who,  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before  the  Christian  era,,  extended  it  to  Greece, 
where  the  silk  found  a  prodigious  demand,  owing 
to  the  immense  wealth  of  the  Grecians ;  and  the 
Phoenicians  also  engaging  in  the  tra.de,  it  found  its 
way  throughout  the  south  of  Europe.  But  even 
those  who  brought  it  to  Europe  knew  not  what  it 
was,  where  it  came  from,  nor  how  it  was  pro- 
duced. 

6.  By  the  Romans  in  the  third  and  fourth  cen- 
turies it  was  considered  an  article  of  too  much 
extravagance  to  be  indulged  in,  except  by  those  of 
immense  wealth  and  pride.  But  about  the  fifth, 
and  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  it  began  to  be 
a  subject  of  inquiry  among  the  Romans,  from  what 
part  of  the  world  this  precious  article  came,  and 
what  was  the  secret  of  its  production. 

7.  About  this  time,  two  monks,  who  had  been 
missionaries  to  China,  returned,  an<l  brought  with 
them  the  seed  of  the  mulberry,  and  gave  informa- 
tion how  the  silkworms  were  reared  and  fed  upon 
the  leaves,  and  how  thos€  worms  spun  the  silk. 
But  to  carry  the  silkworms  or  their  eggs  out  of 
China  was  forbidden  on  pain  of  death. 

8.  Still,  however,  in  consequence  of  the  liberal 
rewards  offered  by  th«  Emperor  Justinian,  these 
persevering  individuals  returned,  and  after  a  long 
pilgrimage,  havhig  obtained  the  eggs  at  the  risk 
of  their  lives,  brought  them  to  the  emperor  con- 
cealed in  a  hollow  cane. 

9.  The  culture  of  silk  was  now  engaged  in  by 
families  of  the  highest  standing ;  but  was  chiefly 

I 


130  HISTORY    OF    SILK. 

carried  on  under  the  immediate  protection  of  the 
emperor,  for  his  own  benefit ;  but  at  his  death,  the 
monopoly  could  be  maintained  no  longer,  and  the 
business  was  entered,  into  by  individuals  with  great 
avidity ;  and  during  four  hundred  years  the  silk 
was  distributed  by  the  Venetian  merchants  through- 
out the  west  of  Europe. 

IOl  But  in  the  year  1146,  Roger  the  Norman, 
king  of  Sicily,  invaded  Greece,  and  capturing  a 
great  number  of  silk  growers  and  weavers,  car- 
ried them  to  Palermo,  his  capitol.  By  the  Sara- 
cens also  it  was  carried  into  Spain,  and  it  soon 
after  found  its  way  into  Italy,  where,  in  1306,  it 
was  so  far  advanced  as  to  yield  a  revenue  to  the 
state. 

11.  It  now  also  found  its  way  into  France,  and 
was  encouraged  by  Louis  XI.  and  Charles  VIII. , 
and  still  more  by  Henry  IV.,  who  established  it 
as  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  wealth  to  his 
nation,  which  standing  it  has  maintained  ever 
since. 

12.  It  began  to  be  introduced  into  England  a 
little  before,  and  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  ; 
and  James  I.  endeavoured  much  to  establish  the 
silk  culture  in  that  kingdom.  He  addressed  let- 
ters, written  with  his  own  hand,  to  the  lord  lieu- 
tenants of  every  county  in  the  kingdom,  accom- 
panied with  mulberry  seeds  and  plants,  together 
with  a  book  of  instructions.  But  though  near  the 
close  of  his  reign  he  effected  something  towards 
establishing  the  manufacture  of  silk,  nothing  prof- 
itable was  done  in  its  production,  and  probably 
never  can  be  in  that  kingdom,  owing  to  the  humid- 
ity of  the  atmosphere. 


HISTORV    OF    SILK.  131 

13.  In  the  reign  of  George  II.  much  was  effect- 
ed in  improving  the  silk  manufacture  by  Sir  Thom- 
as Lamb,  and  his  brothers  John  and  Henry,  and 
it  has  increased  progressively  to  the  present  time. 
The  throwsting  mill,  erected  by  the  Lambs  in 
Derby,  is  still  standing,  and  is  regarded  with  great 
interest,  though  its  usefulness  is  much  superseded 
by  subsequent  improvements. 

14.  It  was  probably  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
producing  silk  in  England  that  attempts  were  made 
to  introduce  it  into  the  then  British  colonies,  as 
early  as  the  twentieth  year  of  the  reign  of  James 
I.,  who  gave  special  instructions  to  the  Earl  of 
Southampton,  that  as  he  had  "  understood  that  the 
soil  of  Virginia  naturally  yieldeth  stores  of  excel- 
lent mulberries,  he  would  urge  the  cultivation  of 
silk,  in  preference  to  tobacco,  which  bringeth  with 
it  many  disorders  and  inconveniences." 

15.  In  1623,  the  colonial  assembly  directed  mul- 
berry trees  to  be  planted  ;  and  soon  after  laid  a 
penalty  of  three  pounds  of  tobacco  upon  every 
planter  who  should  fail  to  plant  at  least  ten  mul- 
berry trees  for  every,  liundred  acres  of  land  in  his 
possession.  A  premium  of  ten  thousand  pounds 
of  tobacco  was  offered  to  any  person  who  should 
export  two  thousand  pounds  worth  of  raw  silk. 

16.  These  encouragements  had,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, the  desired  effect,  the  agriculturists  engaged 
spiritedly  in  the  business,  and  great  numbers  of 
mulberry  trees  were  planted.  Among  others,  a 
Mr.  Walker  had  seventy  thousand  trees  growing 
in  1664.  *'.As  early  as  1732,  at  the  settlement  of 
Georgia,  the  lands  were  granted  upon  the  express 
condition  that  one  hundred  white  mulberry  trees 


132  HISTORY    OF    SILK. 

should  be  set  on  every  ten   acres  of  land  when 
cleared. 

17.  In  1755,  Mrs.  Pinckney,  a  very  distinguished 
lady  of  South  Carolina,  took  with  her  to  England 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  very  superior  silk  to  make 
three  dresses.  Considerable  sewing  silk  was  made 
in  Georgia  during  the  war  of  the  revolution.  In 
1770,  a  filature  for  reeling  silk  was  established  at 
Philadelphia. 

18.  But  the  silk  growing  and  manufacturing 
enterprise  appears  to  have  been  wholly  lost  sight 
of  during  the  general  confusion  and  distress  which 
prevailed  during  the  revolution,  except  in  Connect- 
icut, where  it  had  been  introduced  as  early  as  1760, 
by  the  patriotic  exertions  of  a  Mr.  Aspinwal,  and 
where  it  has  been  continued  upon  a  small  scale 
ever  since  ;  but  this  has  been  chiefly  confined  to 
sewing  silk. 

19.  But  a  general  awakening  to  a  sense  of  the 
great  importance  of  the  silk  growing  and  manu- 
facturing interest  has  lately  taken  place,  and  now 
appears  to  extend  through  every  part  of  the  United 
States ;  and  there  is  every  reason  to  anticipate  a 
most  successful  result. 


SILK    CONTINUED,  133 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

SILK    CONTINUED. MODE    OF    PROCEEDING    IN  REAR- 
ING THE  WORMS  AND  PRODUCING  SILK. 

1.  The  first  step  in  the  silk  business  is  to  pro- 
cure and  have  in  readiness  an  ample  supply  of 
food  for  the  number  of  worms  intended  to  be  kept, 
which  food  consists  chiefly  of  the  leaves  of  the 
mulberry  tree  ;  though  there  are  many  other  leaves 
o.\  which  they  may  occasionally  be  fed,  particu- 
larly the  lettuce  ;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any- 
thing except  the  mulberry  leaves  can  be  perma- 
nently depended  on,  either  for  sustaining  the  worms 
or  producing  silk. 

2.  There  are  several  species  and  numerous 
varieties  of  the  mulberry,  some  of  which  are  in- 
digenous in  this  country,  and  others  of  foreign 
origin  ;  but  though  the  silkworm  will  feed  on 
nearly  all  of  them,  yet  some  are  much  preferable 
to  others. 

3.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  none  but  the 
white  Italian  mulberry  would  answer  the  purpose  ; 
but  lately,  beautiful  specimens  of  silk  have  been 
exhibited  from  worms  fed  on  leaves  of  several 
kinds  of  native  mulberry,  particularly  the  red  and 
the  purple.  White  mulberries  are  also  found  in 
some  of  the  most  remote  forests  in  the  United 
States,  probably  equal  in  value  to  those  brought 
from  Italy. 

4.  But  several  varieties  have  recently  been  in- 


134  SILK    CONTINUED, 

troduced  from  different  pans  of  the  world,  which 
appear  to  be  greatly  superior  to  those  former^  in 
use,  among  which  are  the  Dandolo,  the  Briisa,  and 
the  Chinese  or  moms  multicaulis,  which  last  takes 
its  name  from  the  multitude  of  slender  stalks  or 
sprouts  which  shoot  up  from  it. 

5.  From  present  appearances,  this  may  be  safely 
pronoimced  superior  to  any  other  for  feeding  silk- 
worms. Its  leaves  are  exceedingly  large,  and 
from  its  low  and  shrublike  form,  they  require  much 
less  time  and  labour  in  gathering — they  are  much 
sooner  brought  to  maturity — are  more  palatable  and 
more  nutritious  to  the  worms,  and  produce  more 
and  better  silk. 

6.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  mulberry  plants 
have  been  propagated,  and  have  grown  large  enough 
to  be  divested  of  their  leaves,  the  next  step  will  be 
to  procure  a  small  stock  of  eggs.  This  with  the 
Chinese  mulberry  may  be  effected  in  a  very  short 
time,  for  the  young  trees  may  be  multiplied  by 
layers  and  cuttings  from  ten  to  a  hundred  fold  an- 
nually ;  and  considerable  quantities  of  leaves  may 
be  taken  from  them  the  second  year  from  the  seed- 
bed. 

7.  When  the  trees  have  begun  to  put  forth  their 
leaves  in  the  spring,  the  eggs  of  the  silkmoth  are 
placed  in  a  warm  situation  (but  not  in  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun)  to  produce  hatching,  which  will 
take  place  in  about  five  or  six  days. 

8.  When  the  worms  are  hatched,  they  attach 
themselves  to  the  leaves  of  small  twigs  of  mulberry, 
by  which  they  are  carried  to  the  place  where  they 
are  to  be  fed.     They  are  then  about  the  twelfth 


SILK    CONTINUED.  135 

part  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  those  that  are  healthy 
are  generally  of  a  black  colour. 

9.  In  the  first  stage  of  feeding  the  worm,  they 
may  be  laid  on  tables,  on  shelves,  or  even  on  rough 
boards  temporarily  placed  for  the  purpose,  and 
covered  with  paper,  and  fed  with  tender  leaves 
chopped  fine.  In  about  four  days,  they  begin  to 
appear  torpid,  and  cease  eating,  in  which  state 
they  remain  twenty-four  or  twenty-six  hours,  during 
which  time  they  shed  their  skin,  which  is  called 
moulting. 

10.  This  operation  they  generally  perform  four 
times,  and  the  intervening  times  before,  between, 
and  after  the  moultings  are  called  ages.  The  first 
four  agee  are  from  four  to  eight  days  each,  and 
the  fifth  and  last  age  occupies  about  ten  days,  at 
which  time  the  worms  attain  their  full  size. 

11.  As  the  silkworms  increase  in  size  they  in- 
crease also  in  appetite,  and  especially  during  the 
last  ages  they  devour  large  quantities  of  leaves. 
About  the  thirty-second  day  they  generally  cease 
feeding,  and  prepare  to  *^iiiu  the*-  cocoons.  Little 
twigs,  especially  of  oak,  with  tnt»  leaves  on  and 
dried,  are  then  placed  for  them  to  climb  on,  when 
they  commence  spinning,  and  winding  themselves 
in,  and  in  about  from  four  to  eight  days  they  com- 
plete their  work. 

12.  The  cocoons  intended  to  be  reserved  for 
eggs  are  then  selected,  and  in  about  twelve  days 
the  moth  will  come  out.  They  are  then  placed  on 
papers  in  pairs,  male  and  female,  in  a  dark  room  ; 
and  in  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  from 
the  time  of  leaving  the  cocoon,  the  female  moth 
will  have  laid  her  complement  of  eggs,  which  is 


136  SILK    CONTINUED. 

generally  from  three  to  four  hundred.  Both  the 
male  and  female  die  shortly  after  the  female  has 
done  laying  her  eggs,  and  never  eat  after  leaving 
the  cocoons. 

13.  Those  cocoons  which  are  designed  for  pro- 
ducing silk  are  prepared  by  killing,  or,  as  it  is 
commonly  called,  stifling  the  chrysalis,  which  is 
done  by  baking  or  steaming,  or  sometimes  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun  ;  and  being  thus  prepared  they  are 
ready  for  reeling. 

14.  When  the  silk  is  to  be  reeled,  several  co- 
coons are  placed  together  in  a  vessel  of  hot  water, 
in  order  to  soften  the  gummy  or  glutinous  matter 
which  holds  the  fibres  of  the  cocoon  together.  By 
stirring  them  round  in  the  hot  water  with  a  kind 
of  wisp,  the  ends  of  the  fibres  are  collected,  and 
the  silk  is  reeled  ofi*  with  a  brisk  motion,  each  co- 
coon yielding  a  continuous  fibre  several  hundred 
yards  in  lengths 

15.  As  these  fibres,  taken  singly,  would  be  too 
fine  for  use,  several  of  them  are  united  together  in 
reeling,  and  the  glutinous  substance  connected 
with  the  silk  connects  and  binds  them  in  a  single 
thread,  of  any  size  required.  It  may  be  reeled  on 
any  common  reel,  but  when  the  business  is  ex- 
tended, long  experience  has  dictated  a  form  of 
reels  much  better  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

16.  The  silk  thus  reeled  is  called  raw  silk,  and 
intended  for  market  in  that  state,  is  sold  by  the 
pound,  in  skeins  or  hanks.  The  ingenious  Mr. 
Gay  of  Providence  has  invented  a  plan  of  winding 
the  silk  from  the  cocoons  on  spools  or  bobbins 
which  bids  fair  to  be  a  valuable  improvement. 

17.  The  loose   fibres  which   surround  the   co- 


SILK    CONTINUED.  137 

coons  previous  to  reeling  are  carefully  separated, 
and  are  called  lioss,  or  waste  silk.  Those  co- 
coons, also,  in  which  the  chrysalis  has  been  pre- 
served, and  others,  from  not  being  perfectly  formed, 
and.  of  course  not  susceptible  of  being  reeled,  are 
denominated  waste  silk,  and  when  carded  and 
spun,  answer  a  va.riety  of  purposes. 

18.  The  establishments  where  silk  is  reeled  are 
called  filatures,  some  of  which  are  very  extensive , 
and  the  buildings  appropriated  to  rearing  and 
feeding  silkworms  are  called  cocooneries. 

19.  The  raw  silk  is  transferred  to  the  manufac- 
turer, who  transforms  it  into  the  elegant  articles 
of  dress  and  ornament  we  see  offered  for  sale  ; 
in  many  of  which  great  ingenuity  and  refined  taste 
are  displayed.  But  the  people  who  produce  them 
in  foreign  countries,  from  whence  we  import  many 
millions  of  dollars  worth  every  year,  have  no  more 
ingenuity,  and  probably,  in  most  cases,  less  refine- 
ment of  taste,  and  less  enterprise,  than  the  people 
of  our  own  country  ;  and  no  article  of  silk  can  be 
imported  that  cannot,  in  a  short  time,  be  produced 
in  this  country  of  equal  value  and  beauty. 

20.  The  production  of  silk  is  certainly  one  of 
the  most  lucrative,  as  well  as  pleasing  and  interest- 
ing employments  which  human  industry  can  be  en- 
gaged in.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  Chinese  mul- 
berry itself — the  facility  with  which  it  is  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  or  layers — its  peculiar  tenacity 
of  life — its  beauty  as  a  shrub,  with  its  numerous 
stalks,  bending  with  their  burden  of  broad  and 
shining  leaves,  cannot  but  aflbrd  pleasure  to  an 
agriculturist  of  any  refinement  of  taste. 

21.  The  gathering  the  leaves  and  feeding  th© 


188  SILK    CONTINUED. 

worms  give  light  and  wholesome  exercise,  enli- 
vened by  the  anticipation  of  a  rich  reward ;  while 
the  spectacle  of  millions  of  insects  feeding  with 
avidity  and  gi'owing  in  a  few  days,  from  a  scarcely 
visible  speck  to  several  inches  in  length  ;  then 
almost  simultaneously  ceasing  to  eat  and  commen- 
cing to  spin  and  wind  themselves  in  a  thick  coat 
of  silk,  affording  more  than  ample  compensation 
for  the  food  they  have  received ;  after  a  few  days 
reappearing,  changed  to  a  butterfly,  for  no  appa- 
rent purpose  but  to  deposite  the  eggs  for  a  succeed* 
ing  generation,  must  be,  to  a  reflecting  mind,  a 
rich  subject  for  contemplation. 

22,  It  must  afford  no  less  agreeable  anticipa- 
tions to  the  patriot,  to  reflect  that  in  a  very  few 
years  the  growing  and  manufacture  of  silk  in  the 
United  States  will  not  only  aflbrd  a  living,  and 
perhaps  wealth  to  thousands,  who  are  now,  and 
would  otherwise  remain  poor  and  destitute,  but 
will  save  to  the  country  the  immense  sums  which 
are  now  annually  sent  out  of  it  to  purchase  arti- 
cles which  we  can  as  Avell  produce  ourselves,  and 
probably  cheaper  than  those  from  whom  we  buy 
them. 

23.  The  growth  of  silk  is  peculiarly  adapted  to 
the  minds,  capacities,  and  tastes  of  youth  of  both 
sexes  ;  we  fondly  hope,  therefore,  that  those  of 
that  class  into  whose  hands  this  little  book  may 
fall,  will  feel  sufficiently  awakened  by  the  impor- 
tance of  the  subject  to  endeavour  to  become  more 
fully  acquainted  with  it,  which  they  can  do  by 
procuring  such  publications  as  treat  of  it  more 
extensively,  and  perfecting  the  knowledge  thus 
acquired  by  practice. 


BEET    SUGAR.  139 

24.  The  best  source  to  which  we  can  refer  our 
readers  for  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  silk  busi- 
ness is  "  The  Silkworm,^'*  a  monthly  periodical, 
published  in  Albany,  by  Mr.  S.  Blydenburgh,  and 
we  believe  the  only  one  in  the  United  States,  and 
perhaps  in  the  world,  devoted  solely  to  the  subject. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

SUGAR  MADE  FROM  BEETS. 

What  is  here  said  on  beet  sugar  is  taken  from 
Pedder's  Report  to  the  "  Beet  Sugar  Society  of 
Pennsylvania."  The  latest  information  fiom  the 
highest  autliority. 

1.  ''What  is  the  quality  of  land  best  suited  to 
the  growth  of  the  beet  ?  A  healthy  subsoil  is  indis- 
pensable ;  after  this,  it  is  cultivated  on  almost  any, 
of  course,  with  various  degrees  of  success.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Boulogne,  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  the  beet  has  been  discontinued,  ex- 
■pressly  on  account  of  the  unsuitableness  of  the 
soil,  which  is  chalk,  with  a  very  shallow  depth  of 
mould. 

2.  "  Monsieur  C considers  the  soil  of  New- 

'Jersey  (a  sandy  soil,  not  apt  to  burn  in  the  summer) 
as  very  likely  to  be  excellent  for  the  purpose  ;  the 
facility  with  which  the  crop  might  be  taken  up, 
and  the  advantages  of  obtaining  the  roots  free 
from  filth  or  clay,  are  valuable  considerations ;  the 


140  BEET    SUGAR. 

latter   will    conduce   much  to   their    preservation 
during  the  winter. 

3.  "What  is  the  mode  of  cultivation?  Plough 
the  land  in  winter  and  lay  it  dry ;  obtain  a  pulver- 
ized surface  before  sowing,  and  drill  the  seed 
eight  pounds  per  acre  ;  hoe  the  land  in  the  inter- 
vals of  the  rows  (which  might  be  twenty  inches 
apart  if  the  land  is  not  very  rich,  or  twenty-four 
inches)  as  soon  as  the  plants  have  made  tolera- 
ble progress  ;  at  the  second  hoing,  thin  the  plants 
in  the  rows  to  the  distance  of  about  fifteen  inches, 
and  the  third  hoing  may  be  performed  with  a 
horse  hoe. 

4.  "Which  are  the  best  kinds  of  seed  ?  The 
white  or  Silesian,  and  the  rose  coloured  are  the 
only  kinds  now  sown  in  a  large  way  ;  the  yellow 
is  still  sown  by  a  few,  but  to  no  great  extent. 
Other  kinds  are  said  not  only  to  yield  no  sugar, 
but  to  be  destructive  to  the  process  of  crystalliza- 
tion, if  mixed  or  worked  with  them.  The  greatest 
care  is  taken  to  select  the  best  roots  for  the  pro- 
duction of  seed,  both  as  to  their  kinds  and  perfect 
formation ;  the  largest  roots  are  not  the  best  for 
thrs  purpose. 

5.  "  Which  is  the  best  time  for  sowing  the  seed  ? 
As  early  as  the  season  will  admit,  as  the  greatest 
advantage  is  derived  from  an  early  crushing  ;  some- 
times as  much  as  two  per  cent,  of  sugar,  besides, 
the  ease  with  which  it  is  made  to  crystallize,  the 
quality  being  also  superior:  the  latter  part  of 
April  and  all  May  is  considered  the  proper  sea- 
son, but  this  might  be  extended  to  the  first  day  of 
June .  ^ 

6.  "  When  is  the  proper  time  for  taking  up  the 


BEET    SUOAR.  141 

crop  ?  For  reasons  just  slated,  the  crop  should  bs 
taken  up  as  soon  as  the  roots  have  completed  their 
growth  ;  the  months  of  September  and  October  are 
the  proper  seasons. 

7.  "  What  is  the  manner  of  protecting  the  crops 
during  winter  ?  Heat  is  as  injurious  to  the  roots  as 
cold,  as  it  induces  fermentation,  which  is  destruc- 
tive of  the  saccharine.  The  best-preserved  roots 
which  I  have  seen  were  deposited  in  long  trenches, 
formed  by  throwing  out  the  earth  to  the  sides,  and 
forming  with  it  sloping  banks  2^  feet  in  height ; 
these  trenches  were  10  feet  wide  and  about  100 
feet  long,  in  a  dry  soil,  where  the  roots  were 
packed  without  straw  either  at  the  bottom  or  sides, 
the  tops  of  the  heaps  conical,  and  covered  with  a 
slight  coat  of  straw,  which  was  thickened  during 
the  severity  of  winter. 

8.  "  But  the  almost  universal  practice  is  to  bury 
them  in  pits,  dug  in  the  fields  where  the  roots  are 
grown,  17  feet  long,  2^  feet  deep,  and  2  feet 
broad  ;  each  pit  contains  3000  pounds  of  roots,  is 
dug  and  the  roots  covered  for  one  franc,  or  twenty 
cents  per  pit.  This  is  by  no  means  a  good  method  ; 
the  throwing  out  of  the  earth  mixes  a  great  quan- 
tity of  the  steril  subsoil  with  the  enriched  upper 
stratum,  and  removing  the  roots  during  winter- is 
the  cause  of  much  injury  to  the  soil,  by  the  cutting 
in  of  wheels  in  wet  weather  ;  it  prevents  also  the 
proper  cultivation  of  the  land,  by  ploughing  to  lay 
dry. 

9.  **  What  is  the  method  of  manufacturing  sugar 
in  all  its  processes  ?  The  manufacture  of  sugar 
consists  of  seven  distinct  processes. 

li^.  "  Clca?img  the  Roots.     In  many  large  facto- 


142  BEET     SUGAR. 

ries  this  is  done  by  washing  in  long  wooden  cyl- 
inders, vv^ith  open  sides,  which  revolve  by  the 
power  of  steam  in  cisterns  of  water :  the  roots 
are  thrown  in  at  one  end  of  this  cylinder  and  are 
carried  round  and  ejected  at  the  other  by  a  spiral 
or  Archimedes'  screw  ;  and  if  the  work  could  be 
effectually  performed  by  this  means,  it  would  be 
a  great  saving  of  expense,  but  the  fact  is,  it  is  at 
best  a  most  inefficient  mode. 

11.  "If  the  roots  have  grown  in  a  stiff  soil, 
quantities  of  earth  will  still  be  found  adhering  to 
them,  maugre  all  your  attempts  to  free  them  from 
it.  This  will  do  great  injury  to  the  teeth  of  the 
rasp  while  crushing,  and  will,  I  presume,  be  of 
no  value  in  the  cake  as  food  for  sheep  or  cattle. 
The  large  roots  are  often  found  to  be  hollow  and 
partially  decayed  at  the  crown  ;  this  putrid  matter 
being  acetous,  is  peculiarly  destructive  to  the  yield 
of  saccharine,  and  no  washing  will  remove  it. 

12.  "  The  end  of  the  tap  root  and  the  lateral 
fibres  are  almost  useless  to  the  production  of  sugar 
— often  very  injurious  ;  I  therefore  prefer  to  clean 
by  scraping  with  a  knife,  when  the  earth  and  de- 
cayed parts  are  easily  removed  :  the  cuttings  are 
greedily  devoured  by  cattle  and  hogs,  and  that  por- 
tion only  of  the  root  is  used  which  is  best  calcu- 
lated to  yield  a  superior  quality  of  sugar. 

13.  "  Crushing  or  Rasping  the  Roots.  In  no 
manufactory,  except  where  maceration  is  practised, 
is  this  process  performed  by  any  other  means  than 
by  the  rasp.  This  is  a  wooden  barrel,  set  trans- 
versely with  steel  saws  at  half  an  inch  apart.  It 
is  13^  inches  wide,  and  23  inches  diameter,  and 
when  propelled  by  steam  makes  about  900  revolu- 


BEET    SUGAR.  143 

tions  in  a  minute,  crushing  into  impalpable  pulp  90 
pounds  of  roots  in  that  space  of  time.  Prevssing 
by  cylinders  has  often  been  tried,  but  found  to  be 
totally  inapplicable  to  the  purpose. 

14.  "  Pressing  the  Pulp.  The  heat  engendered 
by  the  process  of  rasping  brings  on  instantaneous 
fermentation,  which  is  destructive  to  the  yield  of 
sugar :  no  time  is  therefore  lost  in  submitting  the 
pulp  to  the  action  of  the  press,  by  which  the  juice 
is  extracted  in  a  surprisingly  short  space  of  time. 
In  no  instance  did  I  see  this  operation  performed 
by  any  but  hydraulic  pressure,  the  power  of  which 
is  astonishingly  great. 

15.  "  The  machine  for  this  purpose  is  very  ex- 
pensive, but  when  obtained,  the  saving  of  labour 
and  time  is  great.  The  pulp  falls  from  the  rasp 
into  a  square  box  below,  from  whence  it  is  taken 
in  a  deep  icooden  or  copper  shovel  and  put  into  a 
bag  which  is  held  open  for  its  reception  ;  it  is  then 
placed  upon  a  frame  of  wicker  work,  standing 
upon  a  small  handbarrow  resting  upon  wheels, 
where  it  is  spread  evenly  in  the  bag,  and  the  mouth 
is  then  turned  down  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
pulp  while  under  the  press  ;  it  is  then  covered  by 
another  wicker  frame  and  another  bag,  until  the 
pile  consists  of  thirty-five  bags  and  wicker  frames. 

16.  "  The  whole  is  then  removed  to  ihe  press, 
where  a  man  takes  and  deposites  *'them  on  the 
wooden  platform,  which  rests  on  the  bed  of  the 
press,  and  the  pressure  is  then  applied.  So  soon 
as  the  juice  is  extracted,  the  pressure  is  taken  off, 
the  bags  are  emptied  of  the  dry  cakes,  and  the 
press  is  ready  for  another  load. 

17.  "  These    presses   are    always    worked    in 


144    ^  BEET    SUCA*R. 

pairs,  so  that  while  one  is  pressing  the  other  is 
being  loaded.  The  juice  flows  from  the  press 
into  a  cistern  beneath  the  floor,  whence  it  is  im- 
mediately pumped  into  the  defficating  pan,  which 
is  placed  so  high  that  the  contents  may  flow  from 
it  by  a  pipe  into  the  evaporator. 

18.  "  Dedication.  The  defiicator  is  a  copper 
pan,  into  which  the  juice  is  pumped,  so  as  to  fill  it 
within  four  inches  of  the  top,  when  heat  is  applied 
either  by  means  of  steam  or  fire.  As  soon  as  the 
juice  has  attained  the  heat  of  58'^  Reaumur  (162^° 
Fahrenheit)  lime  is  added  in  exact  proportion  to 
(he  acid  contained  in  it,  which  is  ascertained  by 
chymical  tests.  This  lime  is  prepared  by  slacking 
with  hot  water  and  mixing,  so  as  to  be  of  the  con- 
sistence of  cream,  and  when  it  is  added  the  great- 
est care  is  taken  to  mix  it  most  intimately  with  the 
juice  by  stirring  it  with  a  wooden  spatula, 

19.  "  After  this  it  is  suffered  to  rest,  and  the 
heat  is  raised  to  the  boiling  point,  when  it  is  sud- 
denly checked  by  withdrawing  the  steam  or  fire  ; 
as  soon  as  the  juice  has  become  perfectly  clear,  it 
is  run  off"  into  the  first  evaporator,  taking  care  that 
none  of  the  scum  or  sediment  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pan  passes  with  it.  The  scum  and  sediment 
are  then  collected,  put  into  bags  and  pressed,  to 
obtain  all  the  juice  they  contain ;  after  which,  the 
residuum  is  thrown  to  the  dunghill,  a  valuable  ma- 
nure. 

20.  "  Evaporation.  The  evaporator  is  a  copper 
pan,  into  which  the  clear  defficated  liquor  flows, 
until  the  pan  is  about  a  third  part  full  ;  to  this  a 
small  quantity  of  animal  charcoal  is  added,  and 
the  fire  or  steam  is  applied  ;  here  it  is  boiled  until 


BEET  sue An.  145 

it  marks  21^^  by  tho  saccharometer,  when  it  is 
passed  into  a  receiver,  whence  it  flows  into  the 
clarifiers  for  puriiication.  During  the  boiling,  if 
the  juice  rises  in  the  pan  so  as  to  threaten  to  over- 
flow, a  small  quantity  of  tallow-^  is  added,  which 
causes  an  immediate  subsidence,  and  facilitates 
evaporation. 

21.  "  Clarifying.  The  clarifiers  are  wooden  or 
copper  pans,  2  feet  8  inches  deep,  20  inches  di- 
ameter at  top,  11  inches  diameter  at  bottom,  each 
with  a  small  brass  cock  near  the  bottom.  A  cop- 
per strainer  standing  on  three  feet  and  covered 
with  canvass  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  each  clar- 
ifier,  v/hich  is  then  filled  with  granulated  animal 
charcoal,  (about  100  pounds  in  each  pan,)  and  is 
covered  with  another  copper  strainer  and  cloth, 
and  then  the  sirup  is  permitted  to  flow  upon  it  until 
the  pan  is  full. 

22.  "  After  it  has  stood  some  time,  the  cock  is 
opened,  the  sirup  is  permitted  to  flow  slowly  into 
a  cistern,  and  the  pans  are  refilled  as  fast  as  they 
empty.  From  the  cistern  the  sirup  is  pumped  into 
the  condenser,  for  a  last  evaporation.  These  clari- 
fiers are  emptied  of  their  animal  carbon  twice  in 
the  day,  and  filled  with  other,  fresh  burnt  from 
the  kilns. 

23.  "  It  is  found  that  some  of  the  saccharine  re- 
mains in  this  carbon,  it  is  therefore  put  up  to  re- 
ceive the  juice  from  the  defficator  as  it  passes  into 
the  first  evaporater,  by  which  means  the  saccha- 
rine is  extracted  ;  after  which,  the  animal  carbon 
is  turned  out  to  be  washed  preparatory  to  another 

♦  Butter  is  preferable. 

K 


146  BEET    SUGAR. 

calcination,  whereby  it  is  rendered  fit  for  further 
use,  ad  infinitum. 

24.  "  Concentration.  The  clarified  sirup  is 
evaporated  in  the  condenser  to  41*^,  at  which  point 
it  indicates  signs  of  fitness  for  crystallization, 
which  may  be  known  by  the  usual  test ;  drawing 
between  the  finger  and  thumb,  when  if  the  thread 
break  and  the  end  draws  up  to  the  finger  in  a  kind 
of  homy  substance,  it  is  enough.  Another  mode 
is,  to  blow  through  the  holes  of  the  skimmer,  when 
if  the  sirup  be  sufficiently  tenacious  to  form  air 
bubbles  and  fall  to  the  ground,  and  on  bursting 
leave  a  while  substance,  it  is  immediately  removed 
from  the  fire. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

BEET    SUGAR CONTINUED. 

1 .  "  What  is  the  yield  of  sugar  per  acre  and 
cost  of  manufacture,  independent  of  the  expense  of 
cultivating  the  crop  ?  Much  contrariety  of  opinion 
exists  upon  this  subject.  Under  favourable  cir- 
cumstances, I  have  reason  to  know  that  8^  per 
cent,  of  sugar  has  been  obtained.  This  consists 
of  first,  second,  and  third  qualities,  and  leaves  only 
the  molasses,  which  cannot  be  crystallized  by  any 
process  now  known. 

2.  "In  the  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  manufacture 
of  sugar,  the  profit  upon  the  beet  culture  must  be 
made  to  appear,  as  also  the  profit  arising  from  the 


BEET    SUGAR.  147 

feeding  of  cattle  and  sheep,  with  the  moUsses  and 
cakes,  and  the  value  of  the  manure.  To  this  add 
the  profit  arising  from  the  preparation  of  animal 
carbon,  which  every  extensive  manufacturer  pre- 
pares for  his  own  use,  and  the  value  of  the  seed, 
which  all  such  are  enabled  to  send  to  market,  and 
I  estimate  the  cost  of  sugar  to  the  manufacturer  at 
44  sous  (4^  cents)  per  pound. 

3.  "  What  mode  of  expending  the  refuse  of  the 
sugar  house  for  the  fattening  of  cattle?  The 
cakes  are  preserved  in  magazines  sunk  in  the 
ground,  where  they  are  beaten  hard  and  left  to  fer- 
ment. At  the  end  of  6  or  9  months  they  are  cut 
out  in  a  vinous  state  and  given  to  cattle  and  sheep  ; 
excellent  for  the  purpose.  A  sheep  will  eat  5 
pounds  of  this  food  (mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of 
oilcake,  say  about  2  pounds  for  10  sheep)  a  day. 
Cattle,  while  fatting,  eat  75  pounds  of  beetcake 
and  6  pounds  of  oilcake  per  day. 

4.  "  The  molasses  is  mixed  with  water  and 
poured  upon  chopped  straw  in  cisterns,  where  it 
remains  for  24  hours,  when  it  is  given  to  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  which  devour  it  voraciously.  The 
sheep  pens  are  strewed  with  lime  instead  of  straw, 
a  most  excellent  mode,  as  it  saves  straw  which 
might  be  cut  into  chaif,  and  conduces  to  the  health 
of  sheep,  as  well  as  to  their  cleanliness.  The 
lime  prevents  and  cures  the  foot  rot,  and  is  the 
means  of  forming  a  large  quantity  of  most  valuable 
compost,  which  is  applied  as  a  spring  dressing  to 
young  clovers  ;  the  effect  is  instantaneous.  Sheep 
fatten  in  2  months  or  60  days. 

5.  "  The  cakes  from  100  pounds  of  beet,  with 
a  mixture  of  molasses  and  straw,  are  sufnrient  food 


148  BEET    SUGAR. 

for  3  sheep  per  day.  From  2000  pounds  of  oeet, 
food  for  60  sheep  for  1  day ;  from  1  acre  of 
beet,  therefore,  food  for  60  sheep  for  20  days ; 
the  cakes  from  3  acres  of  beet,  with  an  allowance 
of  straw  and  molasses,  and  the  above  quantity  of  oil- 
cake, are  sufficient  to  fatten  60  sheep  for  the  market. 

6.  "  What  kind  of  cattle,  and  at  what  age 
are  they  preferred,  so  as  to  give  the  greatest 
profit  for  fattening,  and  the  usual  time  of  feed- 
ing 1  Oxen  are  not  put  to  fatten  until  five  years 
old,  being  worked  on  the  farms  until  that  age. 
Cows  fatten  well,  and  all  descriptions  of  cattle 
are  fed  in  as  short  a  time  as  upon  other  customary 
food. 

7.  "  The  sugar  which  was  forwarded,  together 
with  the  beet  seed,  was  obtained  from  a  refinery 
at  Paris.  The  samples  of  unrefined  sugar  which 
were  delivered,  are  bo?ia  fide  from  the  beet,  and 
were  procured  from  the  difterent  manufactories 
which  I  have  visited,  and  show  the  various  quali- 
ties and  sorts  distinctly. 

8.  "  What  crop  precedes  the  beet,  and  what  is 
the  estimated  quantity  ?  In  many  places  beet  is 
grown  every  second  year,  a  crop  of  grain  inter- 
vening ;  in  some  places  every  year  in  succession  ; 
a  field  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Arras  has  borne 
beet,  either  as  a  crop  for  crushing  or  for  seed,  for 
the  last  fifteen  years.  It  is  sov/n  after  every 
crop,  but  Joes  best,  perhaps,  after  clover,  the  land 
being  ploughed  in  winter  and  got  ready  for  an 
early  spring  sowing.  Oats  often  precede  the 
beet,  but  in  this  case  it  is  usual  to  manure  for  the 
beet,  the  manure  buried  in  drills  after  the  English 
method. 


DEET    SUGAR.  149 

9.  "  What  crop  succeeds  it,  &c.  I  Too  often 
wheat,  a  bad  practice.  The  land  should  be  laid 
dry  for  the  winter  and  sown  with  a  spring  crop, 
clover  always  accompanying  it.  Such  crops  are 
excellent ;  wheat  light  and  small  eared,  apt  to 
blight,  quantity  often  not  more  than  18  or  20  bush- 
els per  acre. 

10.  "  Is  the  crop  ever  manured  for  ?  Yes,  after 
oats,  for  it  is  found  that  manure  is  not,  of  neces- 
sily,  injurious  to  the  crop  of  sugar,  as  it  was  once 
thought  to  be. 

11.  "What  kind  of  manure  is  used,  and  what 
effect  are  different  manures  supposed  to  have  (if 
different  are  used)  on  the  saccharine  ?  An  abun- 
dant supply  is  always  found  in  the  farmyard,  for 
as  the  beet  is  sown  as  a  fallow  crop,  generally 
without  dung,  it  throws  the  usual  time  for  manu- 
ring one  year  back,  an  incalculable  assistance  to 
the  dungheap.  The  refuse  of  the  sugar  house  is 
reserved  as  a  top  dressing  to  the  clovers ;  bones 
are  too  valuable  to  be  used  as  manure,  as  they  are 
required  for  clarifying  the  sugar :  lime  not  in  use 
except  for  strewing  the  floors  of  the  sheep  sheds, 
where  it  becomes  one  of  the  richest  and  most  valu- 
able manures  known. 

12.  "What  is  the  weight  of  the  average  crop  of 
beet  and  grain  ?  Under  favourable  circumstances 
and  seasons,  beet  40,000  pounds  per  acre,  oats 
and  barley  35  to  40  bushels,  wheat  25  to  30,  or  33 
bushels  per  acre. 

1 3.  "  Are  crops  most  productive  of  saccharine 
on  sandy  soil,  or  loam  ?  Light  soils  are  preferred, 
if  they  are  not  of  a  burning  nature.  Moisture  is 
necessary  to  the  growth  of  the  beet ;  but  if  they 


150  BEET    SUGAR. 

are  raised  on  land  x\'ith  a  wet  subsoil,  they  will 
rot  in  the  winter,  although  they  may  appear,  at  the 
time  of  taking  up,  to  be  perfectly  sound.  Deep 
soils  produce  large  crops,  but  they  are  not  valued 
on  that  account,  the  small  roots  often  producing 
more  sugar  than  large  ones.  No  judgment  can 
be  formed  but  by  experiment. 

14.  "  What  is  the  rotation  of  crops  ?  Beet,  beet, 
beet.  Beet,  wheat,  beet.  Oats,  beet,  barley  with 
seeds.  What  is  the  price  of  the  best  beef,  fed 
from  the  beet  of  a  sugar  house,  when  compared 
with  beef  otherwise  fed  ?  Equal,  as  cattle  are 
never  finished  with  beetcakes  alone  ;  an  allowance 
of  oilcake  does  the  business  more  quickly. 

15.  "  How  does  the  uso  of  the  refuse  of  the  su- 
gar house  affect  the  produce  of  the  dairy  ?  Good 
for  all  kinds  of  cattle.  Cows  which  give  milk 
must  not  be  fed  with  fermented  cakes,  as  they 
communicate  an  unpleasant  flavour  to  the  butter. 
Molasses,  when  mixed  with  water  and  poured  on 
cut  straw  or  hay,  and  left  for  twenty-four  hours,  is 
excellent  for  the  purpose. 

16.  "What  are  the  expenses  of  conducting  a 
beet  sugar  manufactory,  and  what  the  estimated 
profits  ?  The  raising  of  the  beet  and  the  manufac- 
turing of  the  sugar  should  always  accompany  each 
other,  and  an  estimate  made  of  both  united  would 
show  the  result.  If  the  beet  is  grown,  and  sold  to 
the  sugar  maker,  the  land  is  robbed  of  the  manure 
arising  from  the  expenditure  of  the  crop,  and  al- 
though great  profits  might  arise  at  first  from  this 
system,  it  must  in  the  end  prove  ruinous. 

17.  "And  if  the  sugar  maker  has  to  purchase 
his  roots  for  crushing,  he  often  meets  with  those 


BEST  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE.        151 

which  yield  but  little  sugar;  he  sells  the  cakes 
and  molasses  to  those  who  get  his  profit  upon  feed- 
ing, and  his  manure,  from  the  sugar  house,  for  less 
than  a  quarter  part  of  its  value,  I  have  scarcely 
met  with  any  one  who  is  contented  with  his  share, 
if  divided,  although  there  are  many  who  are  com- 
pelled so  to  act.  The  perfection  of  the  beet-root 
culture  in  France  is,  when  it  is  joined  to  the  making 
of  sugar. 

18.  "Ill  the  town  of  Arras,  a  person  has  estab- 
lished a  sugar  house  upon  a  very  economical 
scale,  performing  much  of  the  labour  and  superin- 
tendence in  person ;  he  erected  most  of  the  ma- 
chinery with  his  own  hands,  and  is  a  very  intelli- 
gent man.  He  rents  land,  properly  prepared,  of 
the  farmers  in  the  neighbourhood,  for  the  growth 
of  his  crops  of  beet,  at  the  charge  of  from  200  to 
230  francs  per  acre ;  he  has  no  means  of  feeding 
sheep  with  the  cakes,  and  the  molasses  and  ma- 
nure he  sells  to  those  who  are  making  a  profit  from 
this  branch  of  his  business  ;  it  must  be  a  good 
trade  which  could  bear  such  weeding ;  and  yet  he 
made  110,000  pounds  of  sugar  last  season/' 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

BEST  BREEDS   OF  CATTLE. 


1.  The  Devonshire  breed  is  supposed  to  have 
descended  directly  from  the  wild  race.  Its  head 
is  small,  clean,  and  free  from  flesh  about  the  jaws, 


152        BEST  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE. 

deerlike,  light  and  airy  in  its  countenance,  neck 
long  and  thin,  throat  free  from  jowl  or  dewlap, 
nose  and  round  its  eyes  of  a  dark  orange  colour^ 
ears  thin  and  pointed,  tinged  on  their  inside  with 
the  same  colour  that  is  always  found  to  encircle  its 
eyes. 

2.  Horns  thin,  and  fine  to  their  roots,  of  a 
cream  colour,  tipped  with  black,  growing  with  a 
regular  curve  upward,  and  rather  springing  from 
each  other.  Light  in  the  withers,  resting  on  a 
shoulder  a  little  retiring  and  spreading,  small,  and 
tapering  below  the  knee,  fine  at  and  above  the 
joint,  and  where  the  arm  begins  to  increase  it  be- 
comes suddenly  lost  in  the  shoulder.  Thin  loose 
skin,  covered  with  hair  of  a  soft  and  furry  nature, 
inclined  to  curl  whenever  the  animal  is  in  good 
condition  and  in  full  coat,  bright  blood  red,  with- 
out white  or  other  spots. 

3.  The  Devon  cattle  are  highly  esteemed  both 
for  feeding  and  draught ;  but  are  not  so  much 
valued  for  the  dairy.  For  all  the  purposes  of  la- 
bour, whether  activity,  docility,  or  strength,  and 
hardiness,  this  breed  can  scarcely  be  excelled. 
The  ordinary  average  weight  of  the  oxen,  when 
fatted  at  five  years  old,  is  about  eleven  hundred, 
and  that  of  full-sized  cows  seldom  exceeds  eight. 

4.  The  Sussex  breed  differs  but  little  from  the 
Devonshire  :  when  pure,  the  cattle  are  invariably 
dark  red  ;  and  those  which  are  marked  with  a  mix- 
ture of  either  white  or  black,  although  called  Sus^ 
sex,  are  always  crossed  Avith  foreign  blood. 

5.  The  Hereford  breed  is  a  variety  of  the 
Devon  and  Sussex,  but  is  larger,  broader,  and 
weightier  than   either.     The  prevailing  colour  a 


BEST  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE.       163 

reddish  brown,  with  white  faces  ;  the  hair  fine, 
and  the  skin  thin.  In  the  true-bred  Hereford  cat- 
tle there  is  no  projecting  bone  in  the  point  of  the 
shoulder,  which  in  some  breeds  forms  almost  a 
shelf,  against  which  the  collar  rests. 

6.  The  horn  pushes  aside  a  little,  and  then  turns 
up  thin  and  tapering  ;  remarkably  well  feeling,  and 
very  mellow  on  the  bones.  The  quality  of  the 
meat  not  hard,  but  fine  as  well  as  fat  ;  little  coarse 
flesh  about  them,  the  bone  being  small  in  propor- 
tion to  their  weight.  Their  disposition  to  fatten  is 
equal,  or  nearly  so,  to  that  of  any  other  breed  in 
the  island. 

7.  They  arc,  however,  ill  calculated  for  the 
dairy ;  their  disposition  to  accumulate  flesh  being 
opposed  to  the  qualities  of  good  milking  cows  :  an 
observation  which  will  equally  apply  to  every 
breed,  when  similarly  constituted.  A  breed  of  cat- 
tle equally  adapted  to  the  shambles,  the  dairy,  and 
the  plough,  is  indeed  not  to  be  met  with ;  experi- 
ence teaches  that  these  properties  are  inconsistent 
with  each  other. 

8.  The  Hereford  cattle  are  by  many  good  judges 
considered  to  approach  the  nearest  to  that  perfect 
state,  of  any  of  the  large  breeds.  They  arrive 
early  at  maturity,  and  are  fit  for  labour ;  but  it  is 
as  fatting  stock  that  they  excel,  and  it  is  a  difi'erent 
variety  of  the  same  breed  that  is  preferred  for  the 
dairy. 

9.  On  comparison  with  the  Devon  and  Sussex, 
the  Hereford  breed  will  probably  not  be  found 
equally  active  and  hardy  in  the  yoke  ;  but  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  to  exceed  them  in  the  quality  of 
fat{enillf,^ 


154  BEST    BREEDS   OF    t'.ATTLE. 

10.  The  short-horned  cattle  are  more  generally- 
known  as  the  Durham  or  Yorkshire  breed.  This 
breed  was  made  known  in  England  about  forty 
years  ago,  and  has  rapidly  risen  in  the  public  es- 
timation. The  cattle  are  very  large,  and  are  beau- 
tifully mottled  with  red  or  black  upon  a  white 
ground.  Their  backs  are  level — throat  clean — 
neck  fine,  and  body  full  and  round. 

11.  They  have  a  very  fine  coat,  and  thin  hide. 
They  differ  from  the  other  breeds,  not  only  in  the 
shortness  of  their  horns,  but  in  being  wider  and 
thicker  in  their  form,  and  consequently  feeding  to 
greater  weight :  also,  in  affording  the  greatest 
quantity  of  tallow  when  fatted  ;  and  in  having  very 
thin  hides,  with  much  less  hair  upon  them  than 
ony  other  kind  except  the  Aldemeys. 

12.  They  also  possess  the  valuable  properties 
of  fattening  kindly  at  an  early  age,  and  of  yielding 
large  quantities  of  milk.  The  quality  of  the  latter, 
however,  is  not  so  rich  as  that  of  some  other  spe- 
cies. This  breed  is  now  preferred  in  this  country 
and  in  England,  though  the  Devonshire  makes  the 
best  oxen. 

13.  The  Galloway  breed  are  black  or  dark  brin- 
dled. They  are  without  horns,  except  occasion- 
ally a  small  bunch  resembling  them.  They  are 
rather  under  the  medium  size,  being  smaller  than 
the  Devons,  though  in  some  other  respects  resem- 
bling them. 

14.  Galloways  are  a  hardy  race,  subsisting  on 
the  coarsest  pastures,  and  increasing  rapidly  when 
removed  to  more  favourable  situations  ;  they  fatten 
kindly  on  the  best  parts.  Their  flesh  is  of  the 
finest  quality  ;  and  the  joints  being  of  a  moderate 


DIFFERENT    BREEDS    COMPARED.  155 

size,  more  suitable  for  private  families  than  those 
of  the  larger  breeds.  They  are  remarkably  good 
milkers  ;  and  are  well  adapted  to  poor  lands. 

15.  The  Ayrshire  breed  ranks  deservedly  high 
in  the  estimation  of  dairymen.  The  head  is  small, 
but  rather  long  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle — the  eye 
small  but  quick  and  lively— ^the  horns  small,  clear, 
bended,  and  the  roots  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  each  other.  The  neck  is  long  and  slender, 
and  tapering  towards  the  head,  with  little  loose 
skin  hanging  below — and  shoulders  thin.  The 
akin  is  thin  and  loose — hair,  soft  and  woolly — the 
head,  horns,  and  other  parts  of  least  value,  small, 
and  the  general  figure  compact  and  well  propor- 
tioned. 

16.  Such  are  the  chief  breeds  now  in  high  re- 
pute. But  it  must  be  admitted,  that  there  are  great 
deviations  in  many  animals  of  the  same,  and  of 
the  most  approved  stocks  ;  and  there  are,  besides, 
many  crosses  and  local  breeds  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  the  district,  or  the  breeder,  which  it 
would  be  tedious  to  particularize. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE    DIFFERENT    BREEDS    OF    NEAT    CATTLE 

COMPARED. 

1.  From  what  has  been  said,  the  reader  will 
probably  be  enabled  lo  form  some  estimate  of  the 
value  of  the  respective  breeds  of  cattle.     The  two 


156  DIFFERENT    BREEDS    COMPARED. 

kinds,  however,  which  are  chiefly  reared,  are  the 
long-horned  and  the  short-horned.  Concerning 
their  merits  and  demerits,  there  has  long  been  a 
difference  of  opinion  among  the  most  experienced 
breeders.  On  that  subject,  therefore,  it  may  not 
be  altogether  useless  to  offer  a  few  comparative 
remarks  for  the  consideration  of  the  young  farmer. 

2.  The  long-horns  excel  in  the  thickness  and 
firm  texture  of  the  hides,  in  the  length  and  close- 
ness of  the  hair,  in  their  beef  being  finer  grained 
and  more  mixed  and  marbled  than  that  of  the  short- 
horns, in  weighing  more  in  proportion  to  their  size, 
and  in  giving  richer  milk.  But  they  are  inferior 
to  the  short-horns  in  giving  a  less  quantity  of  milk, 
in  weighing  less  upon  the  whole,  in  affording  less 
tallow  when  killed,  in  being  slower  feeders,  and 
of  a  coarser  make. 

3.  In  few  words,  the  long-horns  excel  in  the 
hide,  hair,  and  quality  of  the  beef;  the  short- 
horns in  the  quantity  of  beef,  tallow,  and  milk. 
Each  breed  has  long  had,  and  probably  may  have, 
its  particular  advocates  ;  but,  if  I  may  hazard  a 
conjecture,  is  it  not  probable  that  both  kinds  may 
have  their  particular  advantages  in  different  situa- 
tions ? 

4.  Why  may  not  the  thick,  firm  hides,  and  long, 
close-set  hair  of  the  one  kind  be  a  protection  and 
security  against  those  impetuous  winds  and  heavy 
storms  to  which  the  north  part  of  this  country  is 
so  subject ;  while  the  more  regular  seasons  and 
mild  climate,  at  the  south,  are  most  suitable  to  the 
constitutions  of  the  short-horn  ? 

5.  Further  trials  of  their  respective  qualities 
must  be  accurately  made  and  faithfully  recorded, 


STOCKING  A  FARM  WITH  CATTLE.   157 

before  an  undisputed  preference  can  be  awarded 
to  either ;  for  it  cannot  be  concealed  that  local 
prejudice  is  often  opposed  to  fact.  The  long-horns 
appear  best  adapted  for  grazing  ;  being  well  pro- 
tected by  thick  hides  and  long  hair,  and  seemingly- 
intended  by  nature  for  the  range  of  pasture  land. 

6.  The  short-horns,  on  the  contrary,  have  thin 
hides  and  short  hair,  and  being  of  a  more  tender 
constitution  than  the  former,- and  arriving  to  greater 
weight,  seem  better  calculated  for  the  system  of 
stallfeeding ;  while  the  Devons  have  the  advan- 
tage as  working  oxen. 


CHARTER  XXXIII. 

ON  BUYING  AND  STOCKING  A  FARM  WITH  CATTLE. 

1.  The  first  object  of  attention  ta  the  farmer 
is  to  consider  the  proportion  between  his  stock  and 
the  quantity  of  feed  which  will  be  necessary  to 
support  them.  The  nature,  situation,  and  fertil- 
ity of  the  soils  that  compose  his  farm  are  worthy 
of  notice ;  also  the  purpose  for  which  he  de- 
signs more  particularly  to  rear  or  feed  his  cattle  ; 
whether  for  the  pail,  or  for  beef. 

2.  In  fact,  it  will  be  expedient  to  observe  the 
greatest  exactness  in  this  proportion,  because  if 
he  .should  overstock  his  land,  he  will  be  compelled 
to  resell  before  the  cattle  are  in  a  fit  state  for  the 
market,  and,  consequently,  at  certain  loss  ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  will  incur  a  loss  in  his  profit, 


158   STOCKING  A  FARM  WITH  CATTLE. 

if  he  does  not  stock  his  land  with  as  many  cattle 
as  it  will  bear. 

3.  Formerly,  a  great  prejudice  prevailed  in  fa- 
vour of  big-boned,  large  beasts,  but  it  has  been  as- 
certained that  this  breed  is,  in  point  of  profit, 
much  inferior  to  the  middle-sized  kind.  By  a 
careful  attention  to  the  selection  of  stock,  great 
progress  may  be  made  towards  the  improvement 
of  the  different  species.  Among  the  various  pro- 
fessional breeders  of  modern  times,  (ew  have  at- 
tained greater  celebrity  than  the  late  Mr.  Bake- 
well  of  England,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
many  new  and  important  improvements  in  the 
science  of  rearing  cattle. 

4.  The  principle  which  he  invariably  adopted 
was,  to  select  the  best  beast,  that  would  weigh 
most  in  the  valuable  joints ;  so  that,  while  he 
gained  in  point  of  shape,  he  also  acquired  a  more 
hardy  breed.  By  attending  to  the  kindliness  of 
their  skin,  he  became  possessed  of  a  race  which 
was  more  easily  fed  and  fattened  than  any  other. 

5.  For  many  years,  the  practice  was  to  judge 
by  the  eye  only,  without  regarding  the  other  qual- 
ities of  the  animal.  But,  in  the  present  improved 
age,  a  more  rational  mode  of  forming  the  judgment 
has  been  adopted.  The  sense  of  touch  is  now 
brought  in  aid  of  the  sight.  By  repeated  practice, 
the  art  of  judging  of  the  kindliness  to  fatten  has 
been  brought  to  such  perfection,  that  any  well-in- 
formed breeder  will  tell,  almost  instantaneously, 
in  what  points  or  parts  they  will  or  will  not  fatten. 

6.  In  the  selection,  therefore,  of  live  stock  in 
general,  the  young  farmer  will  find  it  necessary 
attentively  to  consider  the  foliowing  particulars  ; 


STOCKING    A    FARM    WITH    CATTLE.  169 

Beauty y  or  symmetry  of  shape ;  in  which  the  form 
is  so  compact  that  every  part  of  the  animal  bears 
an  exact  consistency,  while  the  carcass  should  be 
deep  and  broad,  and  the  less  valuable  parts  (such 
as  the  head,  bones,  <fec.)  ought  to  be  as  small  as 
possible.  Further,  the  shoulders  should  not  only  be 
light  of  bone,  and  rounded  off  at  the  lower  point, 
but  also  broad,  and  well  covered  with  flesh.  The 
back  also  ought  to  be  wide  and  level  throughout. 

7.  In  rearing  live  stock  of  any  description,  it 
should  be  an  invariable  rule  to  have  the  increase 
from  small-boned,  straight-backed,  healthy,  clean, 
kindly  skinned,  round-bodied,  and  barrel-shaped 
animals. 

8.  In  the  purchasing  of  cattle,  whether  in  a  lean 
or  fat  state,  the  farmer  should  on  no  account  buy 
beasts  out  of  richer  or  better  grounds  than  those 
into  which  he  intends  to  turn  them.  For,  in  this 
case,  he  must  inevitably  sustain  a  very  material 
loss,  by  the  cattle  not  thriving,  particularly  if  they 
be  old.  It  will,  therefore,  be  advisable  to  select 
them,  either  from  stock  feedinjij  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, or  from  such  breeds  as  are  best  adapted  to 
the  nature  and  situation  of  the  soil. 

9.  Docility  of  disposition,  without  being  deficient 
in  spirit,  is  of  equal  moment.  Independently  of 
the  damage  committed  by  cattle  of  wild  tempers 
on  fences,  fields,  &c.,  it  is  a  fact,  that  tame  beasts 
require  less  food  to  rear,  support,  and  fatten  them,  : 
consequently  every  attention  ought  to  be  paid, 
early  to  accustom  them  to  be  docile  and  familiar. 

10.  Hardiness  of  constitution,  particularly  in 
bleak  and  exposed  districts,  is  indeed  a  most  im- 
portant requisite.     In  every  case  it   is  highly  es- 


160   STOCKING  A  FARM  WITH  CATTLE. 

seiitial  to  a  farmer's  interest  to  have  a  breed  that 
is  liable  neither  to  disease  nor  to  any  hereditary 
distemper. 

11.  Connected  with  hardiness  of  constitution  is 
early  maturity.  This,  however,  can  only  be  at- 
tained by  feeding  cattle  in  such  a  maimer  as  to 
keep  them  constantly  in  a  growing  state.  By  an 
observance  of  this  principle,  it  has  been  found 
that  beasts  and  sheep  thrive  more  in  three  years, 
than  they  usually  do  in  five  when  they  have  not 
sufficient  food  during  the  winter.  In  the  common 
mode  of  rearing,  their  growth  is  checked. 

12.  Working,  or  an  aptitude  for  labour.  Whe- 
ther kine  be  purchased  for  the  plough  or  for  the 
purpose  of  fattening,  it  will  be  necessary  to  see 
that  they  are  young,  in  perfect  health,  full  mouthed, 
and  not  broken  in  any  part.  That  the  hair  stare 
not,  and  that  they  are  not  hidebound,  or  they  will 
not  feed  kindly. 

13.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  cows 
intended  for  the  pail.  Their  horns  should  be  fair 
and  smooth,  the  forehead  broad,  udders  white, 
yet  not  fleshy,  thin  and  loose  when  empty,  (to 
hold  the  greater  quantity  of  milk,)  but  large  when 
full. 

14.  Beside  the  rules  above  stated,  there  are  some 
particulars  with  regard  to  the  age  of  cattle  and  sheep, 
which  merit  the  farmer's  consideration.  Neat  cat- 
tle cast  no  teeth  until  turned  two  years  old,  when 
they  get-  two  new  teeth;  at  three  they  get  two 
more  ;  and  in  every  succeeding  year  get  two,  until 
five  years  old,  when  they  are  called  full  mouthed 
Though  they  are  not  properly  full  mouthed  imtil 
six  years  old,  because  the  two  corner  teeth,  which 


THE    COW. RAISING    CALVES.  161 

are  last  in  reneAvrng,  are  not  perfectly  up  until  they 
are  six. 

16.  The  horns  of  neat  cattle  also  supply  an- 
other criterion  by  which  the  judgment  may  be  as- 
sisted, after  the  signs  afforded  by  the  teeth  become 
uncertain.  When  three  years  old,  their  horns  are 
smooth  and  handsome  ;  after  which  period  there 
appears  a  circle,  or  wrinkle,  which  is  annually 
increased  as  long  as  the  horn  remains ;  so  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  these  circles  or  rings, 
the  age  of  a  beast  may  be  ascertained  with  tolera- 
ble precision. 

16.  Sometimes  the  wrinkles  are  defaced,  or  ar- 
tificially removed,  by  scraping  or  filing.  This  is 
a  fraudulent  practice,  too  frequently  adopted,  in 
order  to  deceive  the  ignorant  or  inexperienced 
purchaser,  as  to  the  real  age  of  the  animal.  These 
circles,  however,  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  ringlets  which  are  sometimes  found  at  the 
root  of  the  horn,  and  which  are  a  pretty  sure  in- 
dication that  the  animal  had  been  ill-fed  during  its 
growth. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

THE    COW. RAISING     CALVES. 

1 .  A  PERFECT  breeding  cow  ought  to  have  a  fine 
head,  with  a  broad,  smooth  forehead  ;  black  eyes ; 
clean  horns,  and  a  smooth,  elastic  skin. 

2.  Cows  are  purchased  either  with  a  view  of 


162  THE    COW. RAI:3liNG    CALVES. 

being  fattened  for  sale,  for  breeding,  or  for  the 
purposes  of  the  dairy.  If  for  beef,  it  will  be  ad- 
visable to  attend  to  the  kindliness  of  their  skins, 
and  disposition  to  fatten.  With  regard  to  those 
which  are  intended  for  breeding,  care  should  be 
taken  to  select  the  best  of  that  particular  stock  in- 
tended to  be  raised  ;  and  for  the  dairy,  those  which 
yield  the  most,  and  the  richest  milk.  The  last 
subject  will  be  treated  more  at  large  under  that 
head. 

3.  The  desirable  qualities  of  a  dairy  cow  are, 
that  she  should  give  an  abundant  supply  of  milk ; 
fatten  readily  ;  and  turn  to  good  account  in  the 
shambles.  But,  in  fact,  those  beasts  which  yield 
great  quantities  of  milk  seldom  fatten  quickly. 
There  is,  it  is  true,  a  middling  kind  of  cows, 
which  give  a  tolerable  quantity  of  milk,  and  also 
keep  in  pretty  good  condition. 

4.  But,  though  many  of  this  3ort  will  become 
very  fat  when  they  are  dried,  or  their  milk  is  taken 
from  them,  yet  they  will  not  fatten  so  speedily  or 
so  well  as  those  Avhich  yield  a  less  portion  of 
milk,  and  which  are  more  kindly  disposed  to  fatten 
while  they  are  in  a  milking  state. 

5.  As,  however,  the  dairy  constitutes,  in  many 
parts  of  this  country,  an  object  of  great  importance, 
it  is  a  point  worthy  of  the  most  deliberate  consid- 
ation,  whether  a  particular  breed  ought  to  be  kept 
for  that  purpose  only,  or  whether  it  be  preferable 
to  have  stock  calculated  partly  for  the  butcher,  and 
partly  for  the  dairy. 

6.  "  It  is  probable,"  observes  Sir  John  Sinclair, 
*'  that,  by  great  attention,  a  breed  might  be  reared, 
the  males  of  which  might  }>€  well  calculated,  in 


TI4E    COW. RAISING    CALVES.  163 

every  respect,  for  the  shambles  ;  and  the  females 
of  which  might,  when  young,  produce  abundant 
quantities  of  good  milk  ;  yet,  when  they  reached 
eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  might  be  easily  fattened. 
This,"  he  justly  remarks,  "  would  be  the  most  val- 
uable breed  that  could  be  propagated  in  any  country ; 
and,  indeed,  some  of  the  best  English  and  Scot- 
tish breeds  have  almost  reached  that  point  of  per- 
fection." 

7.  There  are  two  modes  of  feeding  calves : — 
one  is,  to  permit  them  to  run  about  with  the  parent 
cow  the  whole  of  the  first  year ;  and  the  other 
mode  is,  to  wean  them  when  about  a  fortnight  old, 
and  bring  them  up  by  hand.  The  former  expe- 
dient is  generally  allowed  to  be  productive  of  the 
best  cattle,  and  is  adopted  in  those  countries  where 
fodder  is  abundant  and  cheap.  In  others,  where 
it  is  found  prudent  to  reserve  a  portion  of  the  milk, 
the  latter  plan  is  pursued. 

8.  Whether  calves  are  designed  to  be  raised  for 
breed,  labour,  or  feeding,  care  should  be  taken  that 
they  have  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  pasture.  If 
this  be  scanty  at  first,  they  rarely,  if  ever,  attain 
to  large  growth.  Various  plans  have  been  sug- 
gested, and  tried  with  considerable  success,  for 
rearing  calves  without  any,  or  at  least  with  a 
small  quantity  of  milk.  The  time  of  separating 
them- from  the  parent  cow  varies,  from  one  fort- 
night till  they  are  seven  weeks  old ;  but  the  latter 
period  is  preferable,  on  account  of  the  weak  state 
of  the  calves,  if  separated  from  the  dam  at  an  earlier 
age. 

9.  In  winter  the  calves  may  be  fed  with  luke- 
warm skimmed  milk  and  water,    having    bran  or 


164  THE    COAV. RAISING    CALVES. 

oats  in  it,  and  some  very  sweet  hay  by  them,  till 
the  grass  is  ready.  If  the  farmer  have  carrots, 
they  form  an  excellent  article  of  food,  and  render 
the  use  of  oats  unnecessary.  About  three  gallons 
of  milk  daily  are  sufficient  for  the  support  of  a 
calf  until  he  begins  to  eat.  It  should  be  given 
regularly  at  the  same  hours ;  and  he  should  be 
kept  as  quiet  as  possible,  as  rest  is  found  to  pro- 
mote his  growth.  ^ 

10.  Some  feed  partly  with  meal  mixed  in  the 
milk  after  the  third  or  fourth  week ;  or  gradually 
introduce  some  new  whey  along  with  the  meal,  and 
afterward  withdraw  the  milk  altogether.  Hay  tea, 
flaxseed  jelly,  <fcc.,  are  also  sometimes  used  with 
advantage.  But  milk,  when  it  can  be  spared,  is 
by  far  the  best  as  well  as  the  most  natural  food. 
Another  mode  of  rearing  calves  has  been  suggested 
to  render  the  use  of  new  milk  unnecessary,  while 
the  expense  is  reduced  in  the  proportion  of  two 
thirds. 

11.  It  is  effected  in  the  following  manner  :  Let 
half  an  ounce  of  common  molasses  be  well  mixed 
with  a  pint  of  skimmed  milk,  then  gradually  add 
one  ounce  of  finely  powdered  flaxseed  oilcake, 
stirring  it  till  the  mixture  be  properly  made,  after 
which  it  is  to  be  added  to  the  remainder  of  a  gal- 
lon of  milk.  The  whole,  being  made  nearly  of 
the  temperature  of  new  milk,  may  then  be  given 
to  the  animal.  After  a  short  time,  the  quantity 
of  pulverized  oilcake  may  be  increased.  This 
method  is  said  to  have  been  advantageously  adopt- 
ed. 

12.  An  infusion  of  hay  tea  or  hay  water  has 
been  also  applied  to  the  purpose  of  rearing  calves 


THE    (.OVY.  —  RAISINC     CALVES.  165 

with  the  smallest  quantity  of  milk.  In  order  to 
make  this  infusion,  such  a  portion  of  fine,  sweet 
hay,  cut  once  or  twice,  is  put  into  a  small  earthen 
vessel  as  will  fill  it.  The  vessel  is  then  filled 
with  boiling  water,  and  carefully  closed  ;  at  the 
end  of  two  hours  a  brown,  rich,  and  sweet  infusion 
will  be  produced,  not,unlike  alewort,  or  strong  tea, 
>^ich  will  remain  good  for  two  days. 
"  13.  In  the  rearing  of  calves,  much,  however,  de- 
pends on  the  regularity  of  feeding  them.  The 
common  practice  is,  to  supply  them  with  food 
twice  in  the  day,  in  the  morning  and  at  evening. 
Then  they  generally  receive  as  large  a  quantity 
as  their  craving  appetites  can  take.  Hence  the 
digestive  organs  are  necessarily  injured,  and  nu- 
merous animals  either  become  tainted  with  disease, 
or  perish  from  the  inattention  of  their  keepers. 
When,  by  feeding  them  thrice  in  the  day,  at  equal 
intervals,  and  allowing  sufficient  room  for  exercise, 
(when  they  are  not  intended  to  be  fattened,)  they 
will  not  only  be  preserved  in  health,  but  they  will 
also  greatly  improve  in  condition. 

14.  Whatever  food  be  allowed  to  young  calves, 
care  should  also  be  taken  not  to  change  it  too  sud- 
denly. A  calf  must  have  attained  a  certain  de- 
gree of  strength  before  it  can  dispense  with  the 
food  most  natural  to  its  age.  It  should  always, 
therefore,  be  allowed  as  long  as  possible.  It  is  a 
common  notion  that  provided  young  stock  acquire 
size,  their  condition  is  immaterial  ;  and,  after  the 
first  winter,  they  are  generally  turned  into  the 
toughest  pasture,  and  kept  during  the  following 
winter  on  straw,  with,  perhaps,  a  little  indifTerent 
hay. 


166  WORKING    OXEiN. 

16.  But  they  should  be  kept  on  good  pasture 
during  the  summer,  and  allowed  roots  with  some 
sound  hay  in  the  winter,  and  green  food  in  the 
spring  ;  a  contrary  mode,  though  the  most  econom- 
ical, is  decidedly  disadvantageous  ;  for  the  worst 
breed  will  ultimately  be  improved  by  good  feeding, 
while  the  best  will  degenerate  under  a  system  of 
starvation. 

16.  With  regard  to  those  calves  which  are  in- 
tended for  the  draught,  it  will  be  advisable  to  ac- 
custom them,  while  young,  to  be  handled  and 
stroked,  and  tied  up  to  the  manger ;  as  they  may, 
when  they  come  to  be  broken  in,  be  handled  with 
less  apprehension  of  danger. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

WORKING    OXEN. 

1,  A  GOOD  OX  for  the  plough  should  be  neither 
too  fat  nor  too  lean.  In  the  former  case,  he  will 
be  lazy  ;  and  in  the  latter,  he  will  be  weak  and 
unfit  for  labour.  His  body  ought  to  be  round,  joints 
short,  legs  strong,  eyes  full,  his  coat  smooth  and 
fine,  and  every  part  well  put  together,  so  that  his 
strength  may  be  easily  seen.  Another  requisite 
is,  that  he  may  answer  to  the  goad,  and  be  obedient 
to  the  voice ;  but  he  can  only  be  governed  by 
gradual  use  and  gentle  treatment. 

2.  Calves  designed  for  the  yoke  should  not  be 
broken  in  earlier  than  two  and    a  half   or  three 


WORKING    OXEN.  167 

years,  lest  they  be  overstrained ;  nor  should  that 
operation  be  deferred  longer,  as  they  will  become 
headstrong  or  stubborn.  Their  work  should  then 
be  so  proportioned  as  not  to  aflect  their  growth, 
which  continues  till  about  their  seventh  year.  If 
this  be  not  attended  to,  their  value  will  be  lessened 
in  a  greater  degree  than  will  be  compensated  by 
their  laboui-. 

3.  The  strength  of  this  animal,  when  properly 
trained  and  managed,  is  very  great.  He  has  pa- 
tience to  endure  fatigue  ;  but,  being  naturally  slow, 
he  must  not  be  urged  beyond  his  usual  pace.  The 
only  method  by  which  success  can  be  attained  is, 
by  patience,  mildness,  and  even  by  caresses  ;  for 
compulsion  and  ill  treatment  will  irritate  and  dis- 
gust him. 

4.  Hence,  great  assistance  will  be  derived  from 
gently  stroking  the  animal  along  the  back,  by  pat- 
ting him,  and  encouraging  him  with  the  voice,  and 
occasionally  feeding  him  with  such  aliments  as  are 
most  grateful  to  his  palate.  When  he  has  thus 
become  familiar,  a  yoke  may  be  put  upon  his  neck, 
when  he  should  be  fastened  to  a  plough  with  a 
tame  old  ox,  of  equal  size. 

5.  Next,  the  oxen  should  be  employed  in  some 
light  work,  which  they  may  be  suffered  to  per- 
form easily  and  slowly ;  thus  they  will  draw 
equally,  and  the  young  steer  will  be  gradually  in- 
ured to  work.  After  working  in  this  manner,  he 
should  be  yoked  with  an  ox  of  greater  spirit  and 
agilit}^  in  order  that  the  steer  may  learn  to  quick- 
en his  pace.  By  thus  frequently  changing  his 
companions,  as  occasion  may  allow,  he  will,  in  the 
course  of  the  first  month  or  six  weeks  of  his  la- 


168  WORKING    OXEN. 

hour,  be  capable  of  drawing  with  the  briskest  of 
the  stock. 

6.  Another  circumstance  of  essential  impor- 
tance  in  breaking-in  young  oxen  is,  that,  when 
first  put  to  work,  they  be  not  fatigued  or  over- 
heated. Till  they  are  thoroughly  trained,  there- 
fore, it  will  be  necessary  to  employ  them  in  la- 
bour only  at  short  intervals — to  indulge  them 
with  rest  during  the  noonday  heats  of  summer,  and 
to  feed  them  with  good  hay,  which,  in  this  case,  is 
preferable  to  grass. 

7.  In  fact,  while  oxen  are  worked,  they  must  be 
kept  in  good  condition  and  spirits,  by  moderate, 
but  wholesome  sustenance.  Further,  on  their  re- 
turn home  from  labour,  it  will  greatly  contribute 
to  preserve  their  health  if  their  feet  be  well 
washed  previous  to  leading  them  into  their  stalls  ; 
otherwise  diseases  might  be  generated  by  the  dirt 
adhering  to  them ;  while  their  hoofs,  becoming 
soft  and  tender,  would  necessarily  disable  them 
from  working  on  hard  or  stony  soils. 

8.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  ought  also 
to  be  carefully  guarded  against,  as  disorders  not 
unfrequently  arise  from  excess  of  either  tempera- 
ture ;  and  they  are  peculiarly  exposed  to  fevers 
and  the  flux,  if  chased  or  hurried,  especially  in  hot 
weather. 

9.  Farmers,  generally,  exercise  but  very  little 
skill  in  managing  oxen.  They  run  ahead  of  the 
cattle  and  cry  "  Come  along  r'  and  then  run  back 
to  them  and  give  them  a  cut  or  two,  and  then  walk 
on  ahead  of  the  cattle  again.  By  such  driving,  the 
oxen  are  made  very  slow. 

10.  The  driver  should  walk  by  their  side  and 


PASTURING    CATTLE.  169 

close  to  them.  He  should  accustom  tliem  to  walk 
fast,  and  encourage  them  by  his  voice,  and  not 
break  their  spirits  by  pounding  them  with  a  large 
pole,  as  is  frequently  done. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

PASTURING    CATTLE. 

1.  The  feeding  and  fattening  of  cattle,  whether 
for  labour  or  for  sale,  is  the  most  important  in  the 
whole  economy  of  the  grass  farm.  Hence  the 
farmer  should  previously  consider  the  nature  and 
fertility  of  his  pastures^  and  the  extent  and  quality 
of  his  other  resources.  According  to  these,  he 
ought  to  regulate  his  system  o{  grazing^  sailing,  or 
stallfeeding. 

2.  He  should  then  select  those  beasts  only  which 
evince  the  most  thriving  disposition  to  fatten  with 
the  least  consumption  of  food,  and  pasture  them 
upon  such  lands  as  are  best  calculated  for  the  re- 
spective breeds.  He  should  not  take  cattle  from 
rich  to  inferior  soils,  but,  wherever  it  is  practica- 
ble, choose  them  from  lands  of  nearly  the  same 
quality  as  those  destined  for  their  reception.  It  is 
also  proper  in  all  situations  which  are  not  pro- 
vided with  wholesome  water,  to  avoid  selecting 
cattle  from  those  districts  where  it  abounds  in  a 
state  of  purity. 

3.  In  order  to  graze  cattle  to  advantage,  it  will 
be  profitable  to  change  them  from  one  pasture  to 


170  PASTURING    CATTLE. 

another ;  beginning  with  the  most  inferior  grass, 
and  gradually  removing  them  into  the  best.  By 
this  expedient,  as  cattle  delight  in  variety,  they 
will  cull  the  choicest  part  of  tlie  grass,  and  by  till- 
ing themselves  quickly,  they  will  rapidly  advance 
towards  a  proper  state  of  fatness. 

4.  The  grass  which  is  thus  left  may  be  fed  off 
with  labouring  cattl«,  and  lastly  with  sheep.  Hence 
it  will  be  advisable  to  have  several  enclosures,  well 
fenced  and  sheltered,  and  abundantly  supplied  with 
wholesome  water.  Respecting  the  best  size  for 
such  enclosures,  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion. 
From  four  to  eight  acres,  perhaps,  is  the  most  ap- 
propriate ;  though,  if  any  be  of  a  greater  extent 
than  this,  they  may  be  divided  by  a  temporary 
fence  for  this  purpose. 

5.  Thus  the  greatest  and  strongest  cattle  will 
be  separated  from  the  weaker  ones.  For,  if  cat- 
tle of  various  sizes  are  mingled  together,  the  more 
powerful  beasts  will  master  the  others,  driving 
them  from  place  to  place,  and  trampling  upon  or 
wasting  more  food  than  they  can  eat. 

6.  In  the  grazing  of  cattle,  a  variety  of  circum- 
stances will  claim  the  farmers  attention,  in  order 
to  conduct  his  business  either  with  regularity  or 
profit.  He  ought  to  take  especial  care  not  to  turn 
his  stock  out  into  the  pastures  in  the  spring,  before 
there  is  a  fall  bite,  or  the  grass  has  obtained  a 
sufficient  degree  of  length  and  maturity. 

7.  Where  beasts  are  turned  into  fields,  great 
circumspection  is  required,  to  see  that  they  do  not 
eat  to  such  excess  as  to  become  blown  or  hoven. 
That  disorder,  however,  may  be  prevented,  either 
by  feeding  the  animals  so  as  to  gratify  the  cravings 


PASTURING    CATTLE.  171 

of  appetite  before  they  are  turned  into  the  pas- 
ture, or  by  constantly  moving  them  about  the  field 
for  a  few  hours  after  they  have  been  turned  in. 
Should  they,  notwithstanding,  be  attacked  with  that 
dangerous  swelling,  they  may  be  relieved  by  adopt- 
ing the  remedies  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  of  dis- 
eases. 

8.  The  hard  or  light  stocking  of  pasture  ground 
is  a  point  on  which  many  experienced  graziers  are 
by  no  means  agreed.  By  some,  it  is  contended 
that  pastures  ought  to  be  stocked  very  lightly. 
They  say,  that  although  much  of  the  produce  is 
thus  allowed  to  run  to  seed,  which  the  cattle^  will 
not  eat,  and  is  trodden  under  foot,  and  thus  wast- 
ed, yet  experience,  say  the  advocates  for  light 
stocking,  evinces  that  a  greater  profit  will,  upon 
the  whole,  be  thence  derived  than  by  any  other 
practice  on  account  of  the  superior  thriving  of  the 
animals. 

9.  By  others,  it  is  maintained  that  the  practice 
of  light  stocking  is  to  be  condemned.  They  say 
it  not  only  tends  to  diminish  the  produce  of  the 
fields,  but  also  to  encourage  the  growth  of  coarse 
and  unprofitable  grasses.  They  contend  that  the 
hard  stocking  of  grass  lands,  particularly  those  of 
a  rich  quality,  is  indispensable  to  good  manage- 
ment. 

10.  It  is  recommended  by  a  third  party,  that 
mixed  stock  should  be  always  kept  on  the  same 
field.  The  foul  grass  produced  by  the  manure  of 
some  animals  will  then  be  consumed  by  others. 
And  as  it  is  well  known  that  different  species  of 
cattle  prefer  different  kinds  of  grass,  there  is  an 
evident  advantage  in  this  practice. 


172  SOILING    CATTLE. 

11.  In  every  field,  plants  spring  up,  some  ot 
which  are  disliked  by  one  class  of  animals,  while 
they  are  eaten  by  others.  Hence,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  have  a  great  variety  of  cattle  in  the 
same  pasture. 

12.  On  this,  it  is  however  to  be  observed,  that 
where  a  great  variety  of  animals  are  allowed  to 
go  at  large  in  the  same  pasture,  they  rarely  feed 
with  that  tranquillity  which  is  necessary  to  ensure 
thriving.  It  frequently  happens  that  one  class  or 
sort  of  beasts  wishes  to  feed  or  to  play,  while 
others  are  inclined  to  rest. 

li  Thus  they  mutually  tease  and  disturb  each 
other  ;  and  this  inconvenience  is  increased,  if 
any  sort  of  penning  or  confinement  be  attempted. 
Hence  it  is  obvious,  that  the  practice  of  intermix- 
ing various  kinds  of  live  stock  is  productive  of 
evils,  which  are,  in  many  instances,  greater  than 
those  resulting  from  the  waste  of  food  intended  to 
be  prevented  by  this  practice. 


CHAPTER  XXXVn. 

SOILING    CATTLE. 

1.  Soiling  simply  means  cutting  the  grass  in 
summer  and  feeding  the  cattle,  instead  of  letting 
them  run  in  the  field.  By  introducing  the  practice 
of  soiling,  a  very  considerable  saving  of  land  will 
be  effected,  one  acre  of  cut  grass  soiled  being 
equal  to  three  acres  used  as  pasture  ;  and  one  acre 
of  cut  clover  being  equal  to  two  acres  pastured. 


SOILING    CATTLE.  173 

In  this  case  the  clover  is  not  trampled  upon,  and 
grows  much  faster  than  if  it  were  often  corroded 
with  the  teeth  of  an  animal,  or  the  young  leaves 
nibbled  off  before  they  are  sufficiently  formed. 

2.  It  has  even  been  affirmed  that  sixteen  acres 
of  cut  clover  and  tares  v/ill  feed  as  many  horses 
and  cattle  as  tliirly-six  acres  of  the  same  kind  of 
grass  would  do  if  used  in  pasturage.  As  all  plants 
draw  much  of  their  food  from  the  atmosphere  by 
means  of  their  foliage,  they  are  deprived  of  their 
chief  support  and  never  attain  perfection,  if  the 
herbage  be  trodden  before  it  has  arrived  at  ma- 
turity. 

3.  There  is  also  a  very  considerable  saving  in 
the  quantity  of  food  consumed,  as  well  as  a  greater 
variety  of  plants  eaten.  When  animals  are  suf- 
fered to  go  upon  the  field,  many  plants  are  neces- 
sarily trodden  under  foot  and  bruised,  or  partly 
buried  in  the  earth.  In  this  state  they  are  greatly 
disrelished  by  cattle,  and  are  suffered  to  run  to 
waste. 

4.  This  circumstance  never  could  occur,  if  the 
practice  of  cutting  were  adopted.  Cattle  also  will 
eat  with  avidity  many  plants,  if  cut  and  given  to 
thein  in  the  house,  which  they  never  would  touch 
while  growing  in  the  field :  such  are  the  dock, 
cow  parsley,  thistles,  nettles,  and  numerous  other 
plants. 

5.  As  to  the  influence  of  soiling  on  the  health 
and  comfort  of  cattle,  the  balance  is  conceived  to  be 
in  favour  of  the  cutting  system,  when  compared 
with  that  of  pasturing.  Thus,  they  arc  not  liable 
to  be  blown  or  hoven,or  to  be  staked  or  injured  by 
breaking  fences.     And  it  is  well  known  that  when 


174  S0ILIN«      CATTLE. 

animals  are  exposed  to  the  sun,  in  the  open  air, 
they  are  not  only  greatly  incommoded  on  many  oc- 
casions by  the  heat,  but  are  also  annoyed  by  swarms 
of  flies,  gnats,  and  hornets,  which  obviously  tends 
to  impede  their  thriving. 

6.  At  other  times  they  are  hurt  by  chilling  blasts, 
or  drenched  by  cheerless  rains.  Under  proper 
management,  in  well-constructed  stalls,  all  these 
evils  would  be  removed,  and  they  would  be  kept 
inauniform  state  of  coolness,  tranquillity,  and  ease. 
Lastly,  by  judiciously  mingling  green  vegetables 
with  dry  food,  as  circumstances  may  require  it, 
and  by  varying  the  diflerent  articles  so  as  to  pro- 
voke appetite,  not  only  the  health  but  also  the  thri- 
ving of  the  creatures  will  be  greatly  augmented 
beyond  what  they  could  be  by  any  other  mode  of 
treatment. 

7.  The  proportionate  increase  of  manure  ob- 
tained by  soiling  and  slallfeeding  further  evinces 
their  superiority  over  pasturing.  Manure  is  the 
life  and  soul  of  husbandry.  And  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  quantity  of  manure  made  during  the . 
summer  may  be  made  to  equal  the  produce  during 
the  winter.  The  qaality  must  depend  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  food. 

8.  As  to  the  qua)itity  of  herbage  afforded  from 
the  same  field,  under  the  cutting  and  grazing  sys- 
tems, the  balance  will  be  found  equally  in  favour 
of  the  former.  All  animals,  it  is  well  known,  de- 
light more  to  feed  on  the  young  and  fresh  shoots 
of  grass  than  on  such  as  are  older.  Hence  it  in- 
variably happens,  that  those  patches  in  pastures 
which  have  been  once  eaten  bare,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  season,  are  kept  very  short  during  that 


SOILING    CATTLK.  175 

season,  by  the  animals  prefering  ihem  to  other 
parts  of  the  field  where  the  grass  is  longer  ;  so 
that  the  latter  are  often  siifTered  to  continue  in  a 
great  measure  untouched. 

9.  Another  circumstance,  which  is  not  generally 
known,  is,  that  grass,  when  it  has  attained  a  cer- 
tain length,  becomes  stationary.  Notwithstanding 
it  will  retain  its  verdure  in  that  state  for  some 
months,  yet,  were  it  cut,  it  would  continue  in  a 
constant  state  of  progress,  proportioned  to  the  fre- 
quency of  its  being  cropped.  Experiments  have, 
indeed,  been  brought  forward  to  prove  that  with 
clover,  rye  grass,  lucerne,  and  tares,  double  the 
number  of  cattle  may  be  supported  in  much  better 
condition,  when  cut,  than  when  pastured. 

10.  Many  exaggerated  statements  have  been 
produced  in  support  of  the  system  of  soiling  :  but, 
without  attaching  implicit  faith  to  these,  we  are 
convinced,  that,  by  judicious  management  in  this 
respect,  the  profits  of  the  grazier  may  be  largely 
augmented. 

11.  The  following  facts  and  conclusions  are  un- 
doubtedly true.  A  spot  of  ground  which,  when 
pastured  upon,  will  yield  sufficient  food  for  only  one 
head,  will  maintain  three  head  of  cattle  in  the  sta- 
ble, if  the  vegetables  be  mowed  in  proper  time, 
and  given  to  the  cattle  in  a  proper  order. 

12.  The  stallfeeding  yields  at  least  double  the 
quantity  of  manure  from  the  same  number  of  cattle. 
The  best  and  most  efficacious  manure  is  produced 
in  the  stable,  and  carried  to  the  fields  at  the  proper 
period  of  its  fermentation.  Whereas,  when  spread 
on  the  meadow,  and  exhausted  by  the  air  and  sun, 
its  power  is  almost  wasted. 


17b  SUlLIiNG    CATTLE. 

13.  The  cows  used  to  stallfeeding  will  yield  a 
much  greater  quantity  of  milk,  and  increase  faster 
in  weight,  when  fattening,  than  when  they  go  into 
the  field.  They  are  less  subject  to  accidents,  do 
not  suffer  by  the  heat,  by  flies  and  insects,  and  if 
everything  be  properly  managed,  they  remain  in  a 
constant  state  of  health  and  vigour. 

14.  The  stalls  may  be  so  constructed  as  to  ad- 
rait  a  regular  circulation  of  air,  and  yet  shelter 
them  from  the  attacks  of  flies.  The  cattle  may 
also  be  allowed  the  freedom  of  an  open  yard.  In- 
deed, in  that  season,  fold j/ards,  with  open  sheds, 
are  much  to  be  preferred  to  stalls.  This  is  the 
practice  in  England,  where  the  management  of 
stock  is  well  understood. 

15.  Air  is,  indeed,  indispensably  necessary  to 
the  preservation  of  the  health  and  the  speedy  fat- 
tening of  animals.  If  they  are  kept  too  hot,  they 
will  perspire  profusely,  and  their  hides  will  itch : 
this  vexes  them  and  necessarily  retards  their  quick 
feeding.  When  grass  is  to  be  given,  it  ought  to 
be  cut  in  the  morning  for  the  evening  food,  and  in 
the  afternoon  for  the  morning.  The  afternoon 
crop  should  be  carried  to  the  barn,  or  some  other 
convenient  place,  and  spread  out  in  order  to  exhale 
its  superfluous  moisture. 

16.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season,  when  grass 
is  scant,  it  may  be  mixed  with  the  hay  or  straw 
on  which  the  cattle  are  fed.  If  the  mixture  be 
made  up  over  night,  the  dry  provender  will  be 
found  to  have  acquired  a  sweet  vegetable  taste, 
and  to  be  rendered  so  moist  and  palatable  as  to  be 
more  readilv  eaten. 


STALLFBEDING  BEEF  CATTLE.     177 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

STALLFEEDING    BEEF    CATTLE. 

1.  Parsnips  are  employed  not  only  for  feeding 
store  cattle,  but  particularly  for  fatting  oxen.  This 
flesh  is  considered  superior  to  any  other  beef,  and 
commands  an  additional  price. 

2.  Next  to  parsnips  we  may  class  the  carrot — 
a  most  useful  root.  Mangel-wurtzel  comes  next 
in  order  in  feeding  cattle  :  indeed,  in  some  late 
experiments  it  has  been  found  superior  to  car- 
rots, and  nearly  equal  to  parsnips.  Turnips,  espe- 
cially rutabaga,  also  supply  a  nutritive  article  for 
food. 

3.  These  roots  may  be  fed  or  thrown  on  the 
land  in  the  following  manner.  A  cart  enters  a 
field,  in  which  stands  a  boy,  who,  as  the  vehicle 
is  going  along,  throws  the  roots  out,  with  their 
tops  and  stems  on,  as  they  are  drawn  out  of  the 
ground. 

4.  The  second  method  of  giving  these  roots  to 
cattle  is  by  means  of  close  bins,  while  the  beasts 
are  kept  in  a  loose  strawyard.  The  tap  root,  and 
also  the  tops,  unless  they  are  fresh  and  palatable, 
should  be  previously  cut  off,  so  that  the  fatting 
animals  receive  only  the  bulb.  The  tops,  if  eat- 
able, may  be  consumed  by  store  cattle. 

5.  The  third  method  consists  in  keeping  the  cat- 
tle tied  up  in  open  sheds,  with  mangers  for  receiv- 
ing the  roots.  The  roots  may  be  cut  into  pieces, 
which  will  make  them  more  palatable. 

M 


178  STALLTTTSITING    BEEF    CATTLE, 

6.  In  autumn,  while  the  weather  continues  mod- 
erate, the  beeves  may  be  allowed  to  remain 
abroad.  But  whenever  it  sets  in  very  wet,  or  be- 
comes intensely  severe,  they  should  be  kept  under 
shelter,  either  nntU  their  fattening  is  completed,  or 
ihe  warmth  of  spring  again  invites  them  abroad. 

7.  Among  the  various  vegetable  productions 
that  have  been  appropriated  to  the  stallfeeding  of 
cattle,  none  have  occasioned  greater  discussion 
than  potatoes.  They  furnish  an  excellent  supply 
when  cut  and  steamed,  and  appear  adequate  to  the 
fattening  of  cattle,  in  connection  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  other  food. 

8.  These  roots  shouM,  at  first,  be  given  in  small 
quantities,  which  should  be  gradually  increased  to 
one  or  two  bushels  per  day,  dry  food  being  al- 
ways intermixed,  and  the  proportion  of  hay  being 
regulated  by  the  effect  which  the  potatoes  produce 
o\\  the  bowels.  There  ought  to  be  at  least  five 
servings  in  the  day.  According  to  the  quantity  of 
roots  which  a  beast  can  be  induced  to  eat  with  ap- 
petite, he  will  fatten  the  sooner,  of  course  with 
less  expense  and  more  profit.  The  potatoes  need 
not  be  cut,  except  at  first,  in  order  to  entice  the 
beasts  to  eat  them ;  but  they  ought  always  to  be 
fresh  and  clean. 

9.  Flaxseed,  when  mixed  with  a  due  propor- 
tion of  hay  or  meal,  affords  an  excellent  composi- 
tion for  stallfeeding  and  fattening.  It  is  prepared 
in  the  fallowing  manner :  To  seven  parts  of 
water  let  one  part  of  flaxseed  be  put,  for  forty- 
eight  hours  ;  then  boil  it  slowly  for  two  hours, 
gently  stirring  the  whole  lest  it  should  burn.  Af- 
terward cool  it  in  tubs,  and  mix  it  with  meal,  bran, 


fcTALLFEKDINQ    BEEF    CATTLE.  179 

or  cut  straw,  in  the  proportion  of  one  bushel  of  hay 
to  the  jelly  produced  by  one  quart  of  flaxseed, 
well  mashed  together.  This  qaanlity  given  daily, 
with  other  food,  will  forward  cattle  rapidly  ;  but  it 
must  be  increased  when  they  are  intended  to  be 
completely  fattened. 

10.  With  regard  to  oxen  used  in  draught,  it 
should  be  observed,  that  they  ought  to  be  well  fed, 
while  they  are  kept  in  constant  employ,  particu- 
larly in  the  commencement  of  spring  and  in  au- 
tumn, when  their  labour  is  most  wanted.  During 
those  seasons,  they  should  be  supplied  with  abun- 
dance of  cut  hay,  and  with  an  allowance  of  a 
bushel  or  two  of  steamed  patatoes,  turnips,  or  car- 
rots, per  day. 

11.  If  the  labour  be  unusually  severe,  a  mod- 
erate quantity  of  oats  should  be  allowed.  Some 
farmers  endeavour  to  support  working  oxen  on  hay 
alone,  and  the  possibility  of  this  is  one  great  ar- 
gument used  in  favour  of  their  employment ;  but  it 
will  be  generally  found  to  injure  them  in  a  gTeater 
proportion  than  the  saving  in  food. 

12.  But  whatever  articles  of  food  may  be  used, 
ihey  ought  to  be  given  with  as  much  regard  to 
regularity  of  time  and  quantity  as  is  practicable. 
If  a  small  part  be  at  any  time  left  unconsumed,  it 
should  be  removed  before  the  next  feed  is  given, 
otherwise  the  beast  will  loath  it.  In  stallfeeding, 
it  is  too  common  a  practice  to  give  a  certain  al- 
lowance, every  day,  without  regard  to  any  cir- 
cumstance. But  it  is  a  fact,  that  a  fattening  beast 
will  eat  with  a  keener  appetite  on  a  cold  day  than 
in  warm,  damp  weather.  Hence  his  food  ought 
to  be  proportioned  accordingly. 


180  MILCH    KINE. 

13.  By  giving  the  same  quantity  every  day,  the 
animnl  may  be  cloyed ;  thus  his  appetite  becomes 
impaired,  the  food  is  wasted,  and  several  days  will 
necessarily  elapse  before  he  can  recover  it.  At 
least  three  periods  of  the  day,  as  nearly  equidistant 
as  possible,  should  be  selected,  when  such  an  al- 
lowance should  be  given  to  each  animal  as  he  can 
eat  with  a  good  appetite ;  which  point  can  be  reg- 
ulated best  by  attending  duly  to  the  state  of  the 
weather,  or  season,  and  the  progress  he  makes  in 
flesh.  As  he  fattens,  his  appetite  will  become 
more  delicate,  and  he  will  require  more  frequent 
feeding  in  smaller  quantities. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

MILCH    KINE. 

1.  Rep  cows  have  been  long  celebrated  for  the 
excellence  of  their  milk  ;  and  the  calves  of  black 
cows  have  been  proverbially  deemed  good.  But 
colour  in  this  respect  is  a  matter  of  no  moment ; 
the  breed  alone  should  claim  the  farmer's  attention. 
Yet  cows  even  of  the  same  breed  will  not  always 
yield  the  same  quantity  of  milk  ;  and  of  those  which 
yield  the  most,  it  is  not  unfrequently  deficient  in 
richness. 

2.  'iVials  are  easily  made,  by  keeping  the  cows 
on  the  same  food,  weighing  the  quantity  consumed 
by  each,  and  measuring  their  milk.  Then  keep- 
ing and  churning  it,  a  iew  times,  separately.    Thus, 


MILCH    KliNE.  181 

reckoning  the  cost  of  the  provender,  and  the  pro- 
duce (»f  the  milk  of  each,  and  coinparing  the  result, 
it  will  be  soon  discovered  which  is  the  most  prof- 
itable animal.  Comparisons  of  this  kind  are  not 
often  made  ;  for  farmers  usually  purchase  what- 
ever stock  they  can  most  conveniently  or  most 
cheaply  lay  their  hands  on  ;  and  are  then  content 
to  keep  them  so  long  as  they  turn  out  tolerably 
M^ell. 

3.  This  is  the  height  of  bad  economy  ;  for  an 
indiflerent  cow  will  eat  as  much  and  require  as 
much  attendance  as  the  best;  and  thus  occasions 
a  daily  loss,  thit  will  soon  exceed  the  saving  in 
the  original  price.  The  man  who  takes  the  pains 
to  acquire  a  good  stock,  and  has  the  sense  to  keep 
it,  lays  the  sure  foundation  of  a  fortune. 

4.  It  will  be  found,  that  those  cows  which  yield 
least  in  quantity  have  the  richest  milk.  Yet  both 
quantity  and  quality  constantly  vary,  even  in  in- 
dividuals of  the  same  breed,  age,  and  ap[)earance, 
and  are  always  affected  by  the  mode  of  feeding. 
When  kept  on  old  meadow,  the  butter  will  have  a 
better  flavour  than  when  the  cows  are  fed  on  arti- 
ficial grasses. 

5.  Grains,  cabbages,  turnips,  and  other  succu- 
lent roots  will  increase  the  quantity  of  the  milk, 
yet  hay  and  corn  will  add  most  to  its  richness. 
Lean  cows  never  yield  eiihei  so  much  or  so  good 
milk  as  those  which,  without  being  actually  fat, 
are  kept  in  proper  condition. 


182  BEST    FEED    FOR    COWS. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

THK  PASTUi'.E   AND  OTHER    FOOD  BEST   FOR  COWS,  AS 
IT  KEGARDS  THEIR  MILK. 

1.  As  the  nature  of  the  grass  has  a  very  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
milk  which  cows  produce,  ilie  attention  of  the 
thinking  farmer  will  be  directed  to  this  point.  In- 
stances have  occurred,  where  six  cows,  fed  on 
some  pastures,  have  yielded  as  much  milk  as  ninej 
or  even  a  dozen,  will  afford  (m  inferior  ground. 

2.  It  is  obviously  his  interest  to  have  his  cows 
well  fed,  rather  than  to  keep  up  a  particular  num- 
ber, without  heeding  whether  they  are  properly 
supplied-  or  not.  He.nce,  it  will  be  proper  to  suit 
the  milch  cows  to  the  nature  and  fertility  of  the 
soil  ;  and  on  no  acctjunt  to  purchase  them  from 
pastures  superior  to  those  destined  for  their  recep- 
tion. 

3.  To  obtain  an  abundant  supply  of  good  milk, 
it  is  not  alone  requisite  that  the  grass  be  plentiful, 
but  also  that  it  be  of  that  quality  which  is  relished 
by  the  cattle.  The  long,  rank  grass,  growing  in 
orchards  or  other  places,  in  general  feeds  well, 
and  produces  a  flush  of  milk.  Yet  such  milk  will 
neither  be  so  rich,  nor  carry  so  much  cream  in 
proportion,  as  the  milk  of  those  cows  which  are 
led  upon  short  fine  grass  ;  nor,  of  course,  will  the 
butter  be  so  good. 

4.  The  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  are  mate- 
rially affected  by  driving  them  to  a  distance  from 


BEST    F£ED    FOR    COWS,  1K3 

llie  house  to  the  pasture ;  hence  it  will  be  proper 
to  have  the  cowsheds  in  as  central  a  part  of  the 
farm  as  possible. 

5.  In  the  management  of  cows,  it  is  essential 
that  they  be  at  all  times  kept  in  high  health  and 
good  condition.  If  they  are  suffered  to  fall  in  flesh 
during  the  winter,  it  will  be  impossible  to  have  an 
abundant  supply  of  milk  by  bringing  ihem  into  high 
condition  in  the  summer.  Hence,  if  cows  are  lean 
in  the  spring,  no  subsequent  management  can  bring 
them  to  yield,  for  that  season,  anything  like  the 
quantity  they  would  furnish  if  they  had  been  well 
kept  during  the  winter. 

6.  Farmers  cannot  be  easily  persuaded  to  afford 
high  feeding  to  unproductive  stock  ;  nor  is  that 
requisite  for  cows  that  are  dry ;  but  the  common 
practice  of  keeping  them  during  that  period  on 
straw  alone,  or  on  the  worst  hay,  is  very  improvi- 
dent. During  that  inclement  season,  some  nutri- 
tious food  should  be  provided  for  them,  and  the 
animals  be  kept  moderately  warm. 

7.  Beasts  will  thrive  more,  and  yet  not  eat  so 
much,  when  kept  warm,  as  when  they  are  shiver- 
ing with  cold.  When  fed  on  straw,  or  coarse  hay, 
without  any  green  food,  till  towards  spring,  their 
milk  vessels  become  dried  up,  and  they  will  not 
afterward  yield  either  much  milk,  or  of  good  qual- 
ity, until  ihey  are  tiirned  out  to  pasture.  The 
milk  of  lean  cows  is  always  thin,  and  as  deficient 
in  quantity  as  nutriment. 

8.  For  this  purpose,  a  small  quantity  of  any  of 
the  succulent  roots  will  be  found  sufficient  in  addi- 
tion to  their  usually  dry  food.  Even  a  very  few 
Swedish  turnips  in  a  day  will  be  found  essentially 


184         BEST  FEED  FOB  COWS. 

useful  in  preventing   costiveness,   binding  of  the 
hide,  and  the  drying  up  of  the  juices. 

9.  In  Holland,  where  it  is  well  known  that  the 
management  of  cows  is  carried  to  the  highest 
perfection,  they  are  curried  in  the  same  manner, 
and  kept  as  clean,  as  horses  in  the  stable. 

10.  It  has  already  been  intimated,  that  the  best 
summer  food  for  cows  is  good  grass.  Additions  to 
hay  for  winter  food  are  those  most  commonly  em- 
ployed for  fatting  cattle — parsnips  and  carrots, 
which  roots  not  only  render  the  milk  richer,  but 
also  communicate  to  the  butter  made  from  such 
milk  a  fine  colour,  equal  to  that  produced  by  the 
most  luxuriant  grasses. 

11.  The  mangel'ivurfzcl,  in  Europe,  is  preferred 
to  every  other  vegetable  for  feeding  cattle  in  gen- 
eral. On  potatoes  cows  will  thrive  well,  so  that 
with  one  bushel  of  these  roots,  together  with  soft 
meadow  hay,  they  have  been  known  to  yield  as 
large  a  quantity  of  sweet  milk,  or  butter,  as  they 
usually  afford  when  fed  on  the  finest  pastures. 

12.  Turnips,  the  utility  of  which  is  too  well 
known  to  require  any  particular  detail  here,  are 
apt  to  impart  an  unpleasant  flavour  to  butter,  unless 
great  care  be  taken  to  remove  all  the  decayed 
leaves.  Also,  flaxseed  jelly  and  grains.  By  the 
judicious  use  of  these  various  articles,  together  with 
a  due  admixture  of  dry  food,  the  quality  of  the  milk 
is  very  materially  improved. 

1 3.  Salt  should  become  an  object  of  serious  at- 
tention to  every  one  engaged  in  husbandry.  Some 
of  the  advantages  of  its  application  to  stock  may  be 
thus  enumerated  :  It  restores  the  tone  of  the  stom- 
ach when  impaired  by  excess  In  other  food^  and 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM.   185 

corrects  the  crudity  of  moist  vegetables  and  grasses 
in  a  green  state. 

14.  It  helps  digestion,  keeps  the  body  cool,  by 
which  many  disorders  are  prevented  ;  and  it  de- 
stroys bolls.  It  renders  inferior  food  palatable  ; 
and  is  so  much  relished  by  cattle,  that  ihey  seek 
it  with  eagerness,  in  whatever  state  it  may  be 
found.  When  given  to  cows,  it  increases  the 
quantity  of  their  milk,  and  has  a  material  efiect 
in  correcting  ihe  disagreeable  taste  it  acquires 
from  turnips. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

THE    MANAGEMENT    OF    MILK     AND    CREAM MAKING 

AND    PRESERVING    BUTTER. 

1.  It  is  necessary  to  be  very  cautious  in  choos- 
ing milkers.  If  a  cow  be  roughly  handled,  it  is 
not  only  painful  to  her,  but  will  also  cause  her  to 
withhold  her  milk.  If  it  be  gently  drawn,  she  will 
yield  it  freely.  And  it  is  of  importance  that  it  be 
drawn  to  the  last  drop,  for  it  will  otherwise  decrease 
at  each  succeeding  milking. 

2.  It  is  well  to  feed  the  cows  at  the  time  of 
milking,  for  while  eating  they  give  out  their  milk 
with  greater  freedom.  They  are  also  prevented, 
by  the  motion  of  their  jaws,  from  the  common  and 
very  pernicious  trick  of  withholding  their  milk  ;  by 
which,  if  not  promptly  prevented,  they  will  soon 
become  dry. 


186  MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM. 

3.  In  this  country,  it  is  the  general  practice  to 
milk  cows  twice  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours ; 
but  in  summer  the  proper  periods  are  at  least 
three  every  day,  and  at  intervals  as  nearly  equidis- 
tant as  possible.  Very  early  in  the  morning,  at 
noon,  and  a  little  before  the  approach  of  night. 
For  it  is  said  to  be  a  fact,  that  cows,  when  milked 
thrice  in  the  dny,  will  yield  more  milk  in  point  of 
quantity,  and  of  as  good,  if  not  better  quality,  than 
they  will  under  the  common  mode  of  milking  only 
in  the  morning  and  evening. 

4.  After  the  milk  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  it 
should  be  carefully  strained  into  the  cream  dishes, 
which  should  never  exceed  three  inches  in  depth, 
and  which  ought  to  be  perfectly  clean,  sweet,  and 
cool.  If  any  ill  flavour  is  apprehended  from  the 
cows'  having  eaten  turnips,  <fcc.,the  addition  of  one 
eighth  part  of  boiling  water  to  the  milk,  before  it 
is  poured  into  the  dishes,  will,  in  a  great  degree, 
remove  it ;  and,  when  filled,  the  dishes  ought  to 
be  set  upon  shelves,  there  to  continue  till  the  cream 
is  removed. 

5.  It  should  also  be  observed  that  the  milk 
first  drawn  from  a  cow  is  always  thinner  and  infe- 
rior in  quality  to  that  afterward  obtained  ;  and  this 
richness  increases  to  the  very  last  drop  that  can  be 
drawn.  The  portion  of  cream  rising  first  to  the 
surface  is  richer  in  point  of  quality,  and  greater  in 
quantity,  than  that  which  rises  in  the  second  equal 
space  of  time,  and  so  of  the  rest;  the  cream  con- 
tinually de  creasing,  and  growing  worse  than  the 
preceding. 

6.  Thick  milk  produces  a  smaller  proportion  of 
cream  than  that  which  is  thinner,  though  the  cream 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM.   187 

of  the  foj-mer  is  of  a  richer  quality.  If  thick  milk, 
therefore,  be  diluted  with  water,  it  will  afford  more 
cream  than  it  would  have  yielded  in  its  pure 
state,  though  its  quality  will  at  the  same  time  be 
inferior. 

7.  Milk  carried  about  in  pails,  or  other  vessels, 
agitated  and  partly  cooled  before  it  be  poured  into 
the  milk  pans,  never  throws  up  such  good  and 
plentiful  cream  as  if  it  had  been  put  into  proper 
vessels  immediately  after  it  came  from  the  cow. 
From  these  fundamental  facts,  some  important  in- 
ferences, serving  to  direct  the  practice,  may  bo 
deduced,  among  which  we  can  only  notice  the  fol- 
lowing:— 

8.  It  is  of  much  importance,  that  the  cows  be  al- 
ways milked  as  near  the  dairy  as  possible,  to  pre- 
vent the  necessity  of  carrying  and  cooling  the  milk 
before  it  is  put  into  the  dishes.  And  as  cows  are 
much  hurt  by  far  driving,  it  must  be  a  great  advan- 
tage in  a  dairy  farm  to  have  the  principal  grass 
fields  as  near  the  dairy  homesteads  as  possible. 

9.  The  practice  of  putting  the  milk  of  all  the 
cows  of  a  large  dairy  into  one  vessel,  as  it  is  milked, 
there  to  remain  till  the  whole  milking  be  finished, 
before  any  part  is  put  into  the  milk  pans,  seems  to 
be  highly  injudicious.  'J''here  is  a  loss  sustained 
by  the  agitation  and  cooling,  and  the  owner  of  the 
dairy  is  prevented  from  distinguishing  the  good  from 
the  bad  cow's  milk,  so  as  to  enlighten  his  judgment 
respecting  the  profit  that  he  may  derive  from  each. 

10.  If  these  pans  were  labelled  with  the  cow's 
name,  the  careful  dairyman  would  be  enabled 
to    remark,  without  any  trouble,  the  quantity   of 


188  MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM. 

milk  afforded  by  each  cow  every  day,  as  well  as 
the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  milk. 

11.  A  small  quantity  of  clear  water,  cold  in 
summer  and  wkrm  in  winter,  put  into  the  bottom 
of  the  milk  pan,  will  be  found  to  assist  the  rising 
of  the  cream  ;  but  it  is  thought  by  some  persons 
to  be  prejudicial  to  the  butter. 

12.  If  it  be  intended  to  make  butter  of  a  vary 
Jine  quality^  it  will  be  advisable  to  reject  entirely 
the  milk  of  all  those  cows  which  yield  cream  of  a 
bad  quality.  Also,  in  every  case,  to  keep  the  milk 
that  is  first  drawn  from  the  cow,  at  each  milking, 
entirely  separate  from  that  which  is  got  last.  It 
is  obvious,  that  if  this  be  not  done,  the  quality  of 
the  butter  must  be  greatly  debased,  without  much 
increasing  its  quantity. 

13.  It  is  also  obvious,  that  the  quality  of  the 
butter  will  be  improved,  in  proportion  to  the  quan- 
tity of  the  last-drawn  milk  which  is  used,  'i^hose 
who  wish  to  be  singularly  nice,  will  do  well  to 
keep  for  their  best  butter  a  proportion  only  of  the 
last-drawn  milk  ;  in  like  manner  of  the  first-drawn 
cream. 

14.  Milk  consists  of  three  component  parts, 
blended  into  one,  and  distinguished  as  hutyraceous^ 
or  oily  substance,  of  which  butter  is  composed  ; 
caseous  matter,  from  which  cheese  is  formed ;  and 
serum,  or  whey.  To  separate  these  is  the  chief 
object  of  the  dairy.  With  regard  to  butter,  two 
different  modes  have  been  adopted :  the  one,  from 
the  cream  alone ;  the  other,  from  the  milk  and 
cream  united.  The  former  operation  is  thus  per- 
formed. 

15.  The  milk  is  carefully  skimmed  by  means 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM.   189 

of  a  skimming  dish,  and  the  cream  poured  into 
a  vessel,  till  enough  is  obtained  for  churning. 
When  the  cream  has  been  collected,  it  should  be 
put  into  a  deep,  covered  vessel,  for  the  action 
of  the  air  on  the  surface  dries  it.  It  should  be 
well  stirred  with  a  stick  or  spoon  once  or  twice  a 
day. 

16.  The  time  of  keeping  depends  on  the  wea- 
ther. If  the  cream  from  each  milking  be  kept  sep- 
arate, it  may  remain  a  week  without  being  injured; 
but  if  sweet  cream  be  mixed  with  that  which  is 
sour,  they  ferment  and  soon  become  sour.  It  is 
far  better  to  keep  the  cream  from  every  milking 
apart,  and  thus  allow  each  to  become  sour  of  itself. 
The  contrary  practice  should  never  be  adopted,  un- 
less it  be  intended  to  churn  the  moment  the  whole 
mass  has  become  acid. 

17.  With  respect  to  the  operation  of  churning, 
VfQ  would  particularly  remark,  that  it  ought  to  be 
regularly  continued,  till  the  butter  is  come.  If  the 
motion  be,  in  summer,  too  quick,  the  butter  will,  in 
consequence,  ferment,  and  become  ill  tasted  ;  and, 
in  winter,  it  will  go  back.  In  hot  weather,  the 
business  of  churning  may  be  much  facilitated  by 
immersing  the  churn  about  one  foot  deep  inio  a 
vessel  of  cold  water,  arid  continuing  it  there  until 
the  butter  is  made. 

18.  It  is  hurtful  to  the  quality  of  the  butter  to 
pour  much  cold  water  on  it  during  this  operation. 
If  the  butter  is  too  soft  to  receive  the  impression 
of  the  mould,  it  may  be  put  into  small  vessels,  and 
these  be  permitted  to  float  in  a  tub  of  cold  water 
beneath  the  table,  without  wetting  the  butter.,  which 
will  soon  become  sufficiently  firm.     Or,  when  but- 


190   MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM, 

ter  is  first  made,  after  as  much  of  the  milk  has 
been  got  out  as  possible,  it  may  be  thinly  spread 
on  a  marble  slab,  and  the  remaining  moisture  be 
absorbed  by  patting  it  with  clean  dry  towels. 

19.  Water  is  well  known  to  be  a  great  dissol- 
vent ;  at  least,  if  it  be  not  essentially  so,  it  serves 
as  a  conductor  to  air,  which  is  universally  such. 
Fresh  butter,  then,  in  consequence  of  imbibing  wa- 
ter, and  water  being  saturated  with  air,  is  always 
in  a  progressive  state  of  decay. 

20.  Not  so  when  Water  is  excluded:  its  oleagi- 
nous parts  are  admirably  calculated  to  secure  it 
from  putrefaction,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  but- 
ter might  be  made  with  as  little  trouble  as  in  the 
present  method,  to  keep  the  whole  year  fresh  and 
sweet,  with  the  least  particle  of  salt,  solely  by  the 
exclusion  of  water.  In  order  to  effect  this,  the 
floor  of  the  dairy  should  be  kept  perfectly  dry,  for 
water  thrown  down  in  hot  weather  will  assuredly 
rise  again  in  vapour,  and  affect  the  milk  with  its 
humidity. 

21.  The  vessels  used  for  holding  the  milk,  the 
churn,  and  all  the  dairy  utensils,  after  being  first 
washed  clean,  should  then  be  rinsed  a  first  and 
second  time  with  sweet  milk — a  cruet,  washed 
ever  so  clean  with  water,  will  cause  vinegar  to 
become  dreggy  ;  but  if  rinsed  with  a  little  of  the 
same,  will  always  appear  limpid  and  clear.  No 
water  to  be  put  in  with  the  cream  when  it  is 
churned, 

22.  The  butter,  as  it  is  taken  out,  to  be  put  into 
a  tray,  full  of  holes,  and  placed  over  any  other 
vessel ;  but  not  to  be  squeezed  into  lumps,  as  it 
will  drain  the  better  for  being  loose  in  its  texture. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM.   191 

It  should  then  (after  having  well  drained)  be  re- 
moved to  a  tray  without  holes,  and  be  kneaded 
with  the  hands  (first  rinsed  in  whey)  and  formed 
into  a  thin  flat  cake,  slightly  sprinkled  with  salt, 
and  left  in  that  state  ior  about  half  an  hour;  by 
which  time  the  salt  will  have  extracted  the  whey, 
and  it  may  be  made  up  in  the  usual  maimer, 

23.  Butter  thus  freed  from  the  remaining  milk 
is  called  fresh  butter  ;  and,  when  sold  on  the  spot 
or  in  neighbouring  markets,  it  is  formed  into  rolls 
weighing  a  pound,  or  more.  But  where  it  is  in- 
tended to  be  kept,  or  sent  to  a  distance,  it  is  salted 
and  put  into  casks,  usually  denominated  half  fir- 
kins, firkins,  and  tubs. 

24.  Previous  to  putting  the  butter  into  these 
vessels,  especial  care  must  be  taken  that  they  be 
well  seasoned  by  frequent  washing  and  exposure 
to  the  air  for  two  or  three  weeks.  As  it  is  very 
difficult  to  season  new  firkins,  it  will  always  be 
preferable  to  employ  those  which  have  been  al- 
ready used  where  they  can  be  returned  to  the  dairy 
owner. 

25.  The  most  speedy  method  of  seasoning  fir- 
kins is,  by  the  use  of  unslacked  lime,  or  a  large 
quantity  of  salt  and  water  well  boiled  ;  with  which 
they  should  be  repeatedly  scrubbed,  and  after- 
ward thrown  into  cold  water  to  remain  there 
three  or  four  days  till  wanted.  They  should  then 
be  scrubbed  as  before,  and  well  rinsed  with  cold 
water  ;  and,  before  the  butter  is  put  in,  every 
part  of  the  inside  of  the  firkin  must  be  well  rubbed 
with  salt. 

26.  Butter  may  also  be  preserved  sweet  without 
salt,  by  adding  a  certain  quantity  of  fine  honey. 


192         MAKING  AND  PRESERVING   CHEESE. 

in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  the  latter  to  a 
pound  of  butter,  and  mixing  them  thoroughly,  so 
that  they  be  perfectly  incorporated.  A  mixture  of 
this  sort  has  a  sweet  pleasant  taste,  and  will  keep 
for  years  without  becoming  rancid. 


CHAPTER  XLIl. 

MAKING  A^'D  PRESERVING  CHEESE. 

1.  The  goodness  of  cheese,  as  well  as  of  but- 
ter, depends  much  on  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The 
season,  and  particular  way  of  making  it,  also  have 
a  very  considerable  influence  upon  it  in  this  re- 
spect— more,  perhaps,  than  the  material  of  which 
it  is  prepared.  We  shall,  therefore,  briefly  notice 
these  circumstances. 

2.  The  best  season  for  this  purpose  is  from  the 
commencement  of  June  till  the  close  of  Septem- 
ber. There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  good  cheese 
may  be  made  throughout  the  year,  provided  the 
cows  be  well  fed  in  the  winter.  It  is  also  worthy 
of  attention,  tliat  milk  abounds  most  in  caseous 
matter  during  the  spring,  and  with  the  butyraceous 
in  summer  and  autumn. 

3.  The  Cheshire  cheese,  made  in  England,  is 
celebrated  for  its  excellence,  and  we  shall  give 
the  mode  of  making  it  adopted  by  the  Cheshire 
dairymen. 

4.  The  thermometer  of  a  Cheshire  diarywoman 
IS  constantly  at  her  fingers'  ends.     The  heat  of  the 


MAKING   AND  PRESERVING   CHEESE.  193 

milk  when  set  is  regulated  by  the  warmth  ol"  the 
room  and  the  heat  of  the  external  air  ;  so  that  the 
milk  may  be  the  proper  length  of  time  in  suffi- 
ciently coagulating.  The  time  is  generally  thought 
to  be  about  an  hour  and  a  half. 

5.  The  evening's  milk— of  suppose  twenty  cows 
—having  stood  all  night  in  the  cooler  and  brass 
pans,  the  cheesemaker,  (in  summer,)  about  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  carefully  skims  ofT  the 
cream,  which  is  put  into  a  brass  pan.  While  the 
dairy  woman  is  thus  employed,  the  servants  are 
milking  the  cows,  having  previously  lighted  a  fire 
under  the  furnace,  which  is  half  full  of  Vv^ater. 

6.  As  soon  as  the  night's  milk  is  skimmed,  it  is 
all  carried  into  the  cheese  tub,  except  about  three 
fourths  of  a  brass  pan  full,  (three  to  four  gallons,) 
which  is  immediately  placed  in  the  furnace  of  hot 
water,  in  the  pan,  and  is  made  scalding  hot ;  then 
half  of  the  milk  thus  heated  is  poured  to  the  cream, 
which,  as  before  observed,  had  been  already  skim- 
med into  another  pan. 

7.  By  this  means  all  the  cream  is  liquefied  and 
dissolved,  so  as  apparently  to  form  one  homoge- 
neous or  uniform  liquid,  and  in  that  state  it  is 
poured  into  the  cheese  tub.  But  before  this  is 
done,  several  bowls  or  vessels  full  of  new  milk,  or 
perhaps  the  whole  morning's  milk,  will  generally 
have  been  poured  into  the  cheese  tub. 

8.  In  some  celebrated  dairies,  however,  they  do 
not,  during  the  whole  summer,  heat  a  drop  of  the 
night's  milk  ;  only  dissolve  the  cream  in  a  brass 
pan  floated  or  suspended  in  a  furnace  of  hot  wa- 
ter. In  other  dairies,  they  heat  one  third,  one 
half^or  even  more  than  that  of  the  previous  night's 

N 


194         MAKING  AiSD  PREJSERVING  CHEESE. 

milk.  But  in  all,  they  are  careful  to  liquefy,  oi 
melt  the  cream  well  before  it  is  mixed  with  the 
milk  in  the  tub. 

9.  Whatever  may  be  the  general  custom  in  any 
given  dairy  respecting  the  heating  of  the  milk,  the 
practice  varies  according  to  the  weather.  It  is 
generally  on  poor  clay  lands  that  the  milk  most 
requires  warming.  On  good  rich  soils,  it  will  not 
bear  much  heating  ;  at  least,  by  so  doing,  the  pro- 
cess of  cheesemaking  is  rendered  more  difficult. 

10.  The  process  of  making  cheese  is  much 
more  difficult  than  that  of  making  butter.  The 
quality  depends  more  on  the  mode  of  performing 
that  operation  than  on  the  richness  of  the  milk. 
The  temperature  at  which  the  milk  is  kept  before 
it  is  formed  into  cheese,  and  that  at  which  it  is 
coagulated,  or  turned  into  curds,  are  objects  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  the  management  of  a  cheese 
dairy.  The  temperature  of  the  milk  ought  not  to 
exceed  55,  nor  to  be  under  50  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer.  For  coagulating,  it  should  be 
from  90  to  95. 

11.  If  the  milk  is  kept  warmer  than  55,  it  will 
not  throw  up  the  cream  so  well  as  at  the  lower 
degree.  It  is  also  subject  to  get  sour  and  give  a 
bad  taste  to  the  cheese.  If  it  be  allowed  to  be 
much  colder  than  that,  it  becomes  difficult  to  sep- 
arate the  curd  from  the  whey,  and  the  cheese  made 
from  it  will  be  soft  and  insipid. 

12.  If  the  curd  be  coagulated  too  hot  it  becomes 
tough  ;  much  of  the  butyraceous  matter  will  go  off 
with  the  whey,  and  the  cheese  will  be  hard  and 
tasteless.  The  thermometer  should,  therefore,  al- 
ways be  employed  in  every  dairy.     Although  the 


MAKING  AND  PRESERVING  CHEESE.         195 

dairy  women  may  at  first  be  prejudiced  against  it, 
yet  its  evident  utility  and  great  simplicity  will 
eventually  reconcile  them  to  its  use. 

13.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  thoroughly 
to  extract  every  particle  of  whey  from  the  curd. 
No  cheese  will  keep  well  while  any  whey  remains  ; 
and  if  any  part  become  sour,  the  whole  will  ac- 
quire a  disagreeable  flavour.  Similar  eflects  are 
produced  by  the  use  of  an  immoderate  quantity 
of  rennet;  it  is  also  apt  to  blow  up  the  cheese 
full  of  small  holes.  This  last  eflfect  will  be  pro- 
duced if  it  be  allowed  to  remain  too  long  on  one 
side. 

14.  A  very  experienced  dairyman  is  of  opinion, 
that  from  nine  to  twelve  months'  time  is  requi- 
site to  ripen  a  cheese  of  from  fourteen  to  twenty 
pounds  weight.  It  is  laid  down  as  a  rule,  in  the 
process  of  making  cheese,  that  the  hotter  it  is  put 
together,  the  sounder  it  will  be  ;  and  the  cooler, 
the  richer,  and  more  apt  to  decay.  It  should  be 
kept  in  an  airy  but  not  in  a  cold  place.  If  the 
moderately  dried  leaves  of  the  young  twigs  of  the 
common  birch  tree  be  placed  on  the  surface  or 
sides  of  cheeses,  they  will  be  found  very  service- 
able in  preventing  the  depredations  of  mites. 

15.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  strew  a  little  dry 
moss,  or  fine  hay,  upon  the  shelvies  on  which  the 
cheeses  are  laid ;  for  when  new,  they  sometimes 
adhere  to  the  board,  and  communicate  a  dampness 
to  it  that  is  prejudicial  to  the  other  side  of  the 
cheese  when  turned.  It  also  promotes  their  dry- 
ing. 

16.  At  a  more  advanced  stage  they  may  be  laid 
upon   straw  ;  but  at  first,  it  would  sink  into  and 


196  SWINE. 

deface  the  surface.  To  which  we  will  add,  as 
general  maxims — that  great  cleanliness,  sweet 
rennet,  and  attention  to  the  heat  of  the  milk  and 
breaking  the  curd,  are  the  chief  requisites  in 
cheesemaking. 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 

SWINE.  '  .• 

1.  The  Chinese  oreed  were  originally  obtained, 
as  their  name  imports,  from  China.  Of  these 
there  are  two  nearly  distinct  kinds  :  the  white,  and 
the  black.  Both  are  small ;  and,  although  of  an 
extraordinary  disposition  to  fatten,  will  seldom  ar- 
rive at  a  greater  weight  than  300  pounds,  at  two 
years  of  age. 

2.  The  white  are  better  shaped  than  the  black ; 
but  they  are  less  hardy.  They  are  both  very 
small  limbed  ;  round  in  the  carcass  ;  thin  skinned, 
and  fine  bristled  ;  and  have  the  head  so  bedded  in 
the  neck,  that  when  quite  fat,  the  end  only  of  the 
snout  is  perceptible.  They  are  tender  and  diffi- 
cult to  rear,  yet,  from  their  early  aptitude  to  fatten, 
they  are  in  great  esteem  with  those  who  only  rear 
young  porkers. 

3.  Their  flesh  is  rather  too  delicate  for  bacon ; 
it  is  also  deficient  in  lean.  They  likewise  cut  up 
to  disadvantage  when  intended  for  ham.  How- 
ever, they  possess  the  valuable  properties  of  being 


SWINE.  197 

very  thrifty,  and  of  fattening  on  a  small  quantity  of 
food. 

4.  The  Berkshire  breed  has  attracted  universal 
admiration.  The  specific  characters  are  a  reddish 
colour  with  brown  or  black  spots  ;  sides  very 
broad  ;  body  thick,  close,  and  well  formed  ;  short 
legs  ;  the  head  well  placed,  and  the  ears  large, 
and  generally  standing  forward ;  but  sometimes 
pendent  over  the  eyes. 

5.  Another  distinctive  mark  of  this  breed  is, 
that  the  best  are  without  bristles  ;  their  hair  is 
long  and  curly  ;  and  from  its  rough  appearance, 
seems  to  indicate  coarse  skin  and  flesh  :  but  in 
fact,  both  are  fine  ;  and  the  bacon  is  of  very  supe- 
rior quality.  'J'he  hogs  arrive  at  very  large  size, 
and  have  been  reared  even  to  the  weight  of  800 
pounds.  All  the  better  and  improved  breeds  are 
from  either  the  Chinese  or  Berkshire  breed,  or 
from  the  crossing  of  these  two  breeds. 

6.  The  marks  of  a  good  hog  are  a  moderate 
length  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body  ;  the 
nose  short  ;  the  cheek  plump  and  full ;  neck  thick 
and  short  ;  quarters  full ;  carcass  thick  and  full ; 
hair  fine  and  thin  ;  with  a  symmetry  adapted  to 
the  breed  to  which  it  belongs.  Above  all,  it  is  es- 
sential that  it  be  of  a  kindly  disposition  to  fatten 
early. 

7.  Farmers  difier  much  in  their  plans  of  raising 
holding  stock  for  pork.  Some  permitting  their 
shoats  to  run  at  large  eighteen  months,  till  they 
are  penned  up  to  fatten  ;  this  is  the  most  trouble- 
some and  least  profitable  way.  Others  give  them 
a  range  in  clover  pastures,  and  begin  to  fatten 
them  earlier.     I  apprehend  there  is  a  much  more 


198  SWINE. 

profitable  way,  and  attended  with  less  trouble  for 
those  who  have  the  right  breed. 

8.  According  to  the  quantity  of  pork  wanted 
should  be  the  number  of  breeding  sows  kept  over, 
and  there  should  be  no  other  hogs  on  the  farm 
[that  is,  kept  over  winter]  but  the  breeding  sows. 
These  should  be  fed  in  the  most  attentive  manner. 
As  soon  as  the  pigs  begin  to  feed  freely  out  of  the 
trough,  they  should  be  separated,  and  afterward 
fed  regularly  with  green  tares,  clover,  boiled  po- 
tatoes, ground  peas,  unmerchantable  corn,  or  any 
other  nourishing  food  ;  turning  them  out  every  day 
into  a  small  yard,  where  there  is  a  shallow  pond 
for  them  to  lie  in. 

9.  This  method,  as  it  is  attended  with  little 
trouble,  and  leaves  so  small  a  quantity  of  stock 
on  hand  to  winter  over,  appears  to  me  to  be  more 
economical,  in  every  point  of  view,  than  any  other 
which  is  practised.  Some  farmers  assert  that 
*'  March  pigs,  killed  about  Christmas,  are  the  most 
profitable  for  pork."  Others  say,  "pigs  ought 
never  to  come  until  June  ;  for  the  cost  of  earlier 
pigs  exceeds  the  profit." 

10.  Some  recommend  keeping  hogs  in  pastures, 
with  slops  from  the  dairy,  &c.,  till  near  the  last 
of  August ;  others  say  a  little  later.  All  agree 
that  near  this  time  they  manifest  a  disrelish  for 
grass.  Small  patches  of  peas  will  then  be  con- 
venient to  turn  them  into  for  a  few  weeks.  About 
the  first  of  September  begin  with  boiled  potatoes 
and  pumpkins,  mashed  together  with  a  little  Indian 
meal,  ground  oats  and  peas,  or  other  grain,  stirred 
into  the  mixture. 

1 1 .  From  two  to  four  weeks  before  killing  tinie, 


DISEASES    OF    CATTLE.  199 

ihc  food  should  be  dry  Indian  corn,  and  clean  cold 
water.  Hogs  should  never  know  what  liberty  is, 
(unless  it  be  in  clover  pasture,)  but  should  be  kept 
close  all  their  lives,  and  as  inactive  as  possible. 
With  this  method,  almost  double  the  quantity  of 
pork  can  be  produced  with  the  same  expense  of 
i'eed.  Young  pigs  require  warm  meat  to  make 
them  grow.  Corn  and  cold  water  will  make  them 
healthy  ;  but  warm  beverage  is  considered  as  re- 
quisite to  a  quick  growth. 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 

i.  The  brute  creation  are,  in  general,  liable  to 
fewer  diseases  than  mankind ;  and,  as  their  dis- 
eases are  less  complicated,  they  are  of  course 
more  easily  relieved.  The  treatment  of  sick  cat- 
tle has  hitherto  been  confined  chiefly  to  the  most 
illiterate  persons — to  men  equally  unacquainted 
with  anatomy,  and  with  the  relative  powers  of 
medicine.  Hence  many  thousands  of  valuable 
beasts  have  necessarily  perished  for  want  of  that 
assistance  which  attentive  observation,  aided  by 
sedulous  inquiries,  might  have  remedied,  if  not 
altogether  prevented. 

2.  Various  are  the  maladies  to  which  cattle  are 
liable  ;  though  constant  and  careful  examhiation  of 
their  health  will  greatly  contribute  to  the  preven- 
tion of  difteases      It  will  frequently  happen,  how» 


200  DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 

ever,  that  they  become  sick,  either  from  the  effects 
of  our  variable  climate,  or  from  causes  which  all 
ihs.  vigilance  of  the  farmer  cannot  possibly  control. 
It  vs'ould  greatly  swell  the  limits  of  the  present 
work  were  we  to  enumerate  every  malady  incident 
to  cattle. 

3.  We  shall  therefore  confine  our  attention  to  a 
few  of  those  which  are  of  most  common  occur- 
rence. But  it  cannot  be  sufficiently  impressed 
upon  the  owner  of  cattle,  that  in  all  sudden  cases, 
it  will  be  his  real  interest  promptly  to  call  in  the 
aid  of  some  expert  cattle  doctor. 

4.  Colds  are  frequent  attendants  in  the  rearing 
of  numerous  animals,  and  are  too  well  known  to 
require  any  minute  description.  In  these  affec- 
tions, as  in  every  other  malady,  prevention  is  pref- 
erable to  cure.  It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to 
preserve  cattle  from  undue  exposure  to  sudden 
blasts  of  wind,  particularly  from  the  northeast, 
and  not  to  suffer  them  to  lie  in  wet  pastures. 

5.  Chilling  the  surface  of  the  body  causes  an 
undue  determination  of  blood  to  some  internal  or- 
gan, which  not  unfrequently  terminates  in  acute 
inflammation.  The  lungs  and  bowels  are  more  lia- 
ble to  suffer  from  cold  and  wet  than  any  other 
parts  of  the  body,  and  hence  it  is  that  colds  often 
lead  to  diseases  of  these  parts. 

6.  When  they  become  confirmed,  or  settle  on 
some  internal  part  of  the  body,  the  affected  cattle 
may  be  easily  discovered  by  the  hoUowness  of 
their  flanks,  the  roughness  of  their  coats,  the  run- 
ning or  weeping  of  their  eyes,  and  the  heat  of  the 
breath.  Colds  prevail  chiefly  in  the  brute  creation, 
as  among  mankind,  in  those  springs  which  follo-w 


DISEASES    OF    CATTLE.  201 

mild  winters  ;  and  as  they  become  contagious  if 
long  neglected,  the  diseased  beasts  should  be  se- 
lected as  soon  as  possible,  and  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  herd. 

7.  Formerly,  it  used  to  be  the  practice  to  keep 
beasts  affected  with  colds  as  warm  as  possible,  and 
no  doubt  many  have  fallen  sacrifices  to  this  very 
improper  mode  of  treatment.  Unless  sweating 
can  be  excited,  the  warm  atmosphere  in  which  an- 
imals were  kept  only  tended  to  increase  the  in- 
flammation. Thus  the  disease,  which  at  first  was 
confined  perhaps  to  the  windpipe,  has  extended  to 
the  lungs,  and  has  either  produced  inflammation  of 
the  membrane  lining  the  air  cells,  or  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  lungs  themselves. 

8.  As  those  medicines  generally  termed  sudo- 
rifics  are  not  always  found  to  excite  sweating  in 
animals,  they  of  course  never  can  be  relied  on  for 
producing  that  effect.  It  is  better  to  keep  the  beast 
affected  with  cold  in  such  a  situation  that  he  may 
breathe  a  perfectly  pure  and  cool  air  without  being 
exposed  to  draughts  or  wet.  In  order  to  relieve 
the  lungs  and  other  parts  of  the  body  from  the 
load  of  blood  they  are  forced  to  receive,  from  two 
to  four  or  more  quarts  of  blood  may  be  drawn,  ac- 
cording to  the  urgency  of  the  symptoms. 

9.  'J'he  Colic  may  be  ascertained  by  the  restless- 
ness of  the  diseased  animal,  which  rises  up  and 
lies  down  almost  incessantly,  continually  striking 
its  head  and  horns  against  any  object  that  occurs. 
Young  cattle  are  chiefly  affected  by  the  colic.  This 
di&ease  is  attended  either  with  a  scouring  or  with 
costiveness,  and  of  course  must  be  treated  accord- 
ing to  those  two  circumstances. 


202  DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 

10.  In  the  former  case,  there  is  generally  an 
acid  in  the  stomach,  which  should  be  corrected  by 
the  administration  of  about  an  ounce  or  more  of 
magnesia  in  a  quart  or  more  of  warm  water  ;  and 
this  should  shortly  be  followed  by  a  dose  of  castor 
oil.  Should  the  scouring  continue  after  the  proper 
use  of  purgatives,  and  the  coal  be  staring  and 
rough,  the  animal  should  be  housed.  Its  diet 
should  be  nutritive,  and  wheat-flour  gruel,  with  a 
drachm  of  laudanum,  if  necessary,  should  be  given 
three  or  four  times  a  day. 

11.  Foul,  This  disease  eff'ects  the  feet  of  cat- 
tle. It  is  generally  caused  by  gravel  or  some 
other  hard  substance  getting  between  the  claws. 
The  part  aftected  must  be  cleansed  by  washing,  in 
order  to  discharge  the  offensive  matter  contained 
in  the  claws ;  after  which  they  should  be  dressed 
with  a  mild  digestive  ointment,  and  kept  perfectly 
clean  from  all  tilth. 

12.  Should,  however,  ulceration  appear,  some 
local  stimulant  may  be  applied,  and  the  part  should 
be  dressed  with  a  saturated  solution  of  alum.  If 
the  disease  spread  under  the  horn,  this  must  be 
freely  pared  away,  and  the  part  dressed  with  some 
mild  caustic  or  ointment,  according  to  the  state  of 
the  parts. 

13.  Hoven.  No  distemper  is  of  more  frequent 
occurrence  among  cattle  than  that  of  being  swol- 
len, hloivn  or  hoven,  as  it  is  usually  denominated 
by  farmers.  It  is  induced  either  by  too  sudden 
removal  from  an  inferior  to  a  rich  pasture,  or 
by  eating  too  eagerly  of  turnips,  clover,  or  any 
other  succulent  food.  The  stomach  is  loaded  with 
foodf  and  the  process  of  chewing  the  cud  being 


DISEASES    OF    CATTLE.  203 

prevented,  decomposition  takes  place,  gas  is  gen- 
erated, and  the  animal  becomes  swollen  with  con- 
fined air,  which  distends  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines. 

14.  Its  preventive  is  obvious,  and  consists  sim- 
ply in  turning  cattle  into  such  rich  pastures  only 
when  they  are  not  pressed  by  hunger,  so  that  their 
appetite  may  be  soon  gratified.  Or  they  should  be 
gently  driven  about  for  a  few  hours,  that  the  ani- 
mals being  thus  suffered  to  graze  a  very  short  time 
at  once,  the  stomach  may  become  gradually  accus- 
tomed to  it. 

15.  Specific.  Let  three  quarters  of  a  pint  of 
olive  oil,  and  one  pint  of  melted  butter,  or  hog*s 
lard,  be  mixed  together,  and  given  to  the  animal 
by  means  of  a  horn  or  bottle  ;  if  no  favourable 
change  be  produced  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  the 
same  quantity  may  be  repeated.  This  dose  is 
calculated  for  neat  cattle  :  for  sheep,  when  hoven 
or  blown,  a  wineglass  full  and  a  half,  or  two 
glasses,  will  be  sufficient  to  be  given  in  like  man- 
ner. And  it  is  asserted  that  this  remedy  is  a  spe- 
cific for  the  malady  in  question,  eff*ecting  a  cure 
within  the  short  period  of  half  an  hour. 

16.  Looseness^  or  Scouring,  equally  affects  oxeii 
and  cows,  though  its  causes  in  both  are  different. 
In  general,  it  arises  either  from  want  of  sufficient 
food,  both  in  quality  and  proportion  ;  from  being 
overheated  or  overworked ;'  from  feeding  on  wet, 
unwholesome  fog,  or  after  grass  ;  or  on  bad  hay 
and  straw  ;  and  from  not  being  lodged  in  dry  situ- 
ations ;  though  it  is  sometimes  a  hereditary  taint. 

17.  But  whatever  be  the  cause,  as  soon  as  the 
ecour  or  lax   begins   to  appear,  (and   it   may  be 


204  DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 

easily  known  by  the  general  debility  and  loss  of 
flesh,  the  increasing  paleness  of  the  eyes,  and 
irregular  beating  of  the  pulse,  weakness  of  appe- 
tite, &c.,)  it  will  be  necessary  to  house  the  beast, 
and  put  it  to  dry  food  ;  which,  in  early  stages  of 
the  disease,  will  mostly  effect  a  cure.  Should  the 
looseness  increase,  a  pound  of  mutton  suet,  boiled 
in  three  quarts  of  milk,  till  the  former  is  completely 
dissolved,  may  be  given  in  a  lukewarm  state. 

18.  The  Pantas,  or  Panting  Evil,  prevails 
chiefly  during  the  intense  heat  of  summer,  though 
it  is  sometimes  occasioned  by  sudden  colds.  It 
may  be  easily  known  by  the  panting,  or  heaving, 
of  the  animal's  flanks,  which  is  likewise  accom- 
panied by  trembling  and  decay  of  flesh.  In  the 
treatment  of  this  disease,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
house  the  beast,  and  give  it  every  six  hours  (during 
the  continuance  of  the  chilly  symptoms)  one  quart 
of  warm  strong  beer,  in  which  one  table  spoonful 
of  laudanum,  a  similar  quantity  of  ground  or  grated 
ginger,  and  two  table  spoonfuls  of  spirit  of  hartshorn 
have  been  previously  infused. 

19.  His  food  should  consist  chiefly  of  sweet  dry 
hay,  with  warm  water,  in  which  nitre  may  be  dis- 
solved, if  a  fever  be  approaching  ;  and  the  animal 
should  be  well  littered  with  abundance  of  straw. 
As  he  gains  strength,  he  should  be  gradually  ac- 
customed to  the  air,  and  after  a  short  time  will  be 
fully  recovered. 

20.  Poisons..  While  grazing  abroad,  cattle  are 
subject  to  a  variety  of  accidents,  by  eating  the 
leaves  of  yew,  various  species  of  crowsfoot,  and 
other  acid  plants,  as  well  as  by  bites  from  mad 
dogs,  or  venomous  reptiles.     In  the  former  case, 


DISEASES     OF    CATTLE.  205 

the  most  eftectual  practice  consists  in  drenching 
the  animal  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  luke- 
warm salad  oil  and  vinegar,  afterward  giving  a 
gentle  purgative  of  Glauber's  salts. 

21.  With  regard  to  bites  of  mad  dogs,  the  only 
remedy  is  to  eradicate  the  lacerated  part,  either  by 
excision,  or  by  the  actual  cautery,  the  wound  being 
kept  open  for  a  considerable  time  ;  but  in  cases  of 
bites  by  serpents,  or  vipers,  we  know  of  no  better 
remedy  than  the  continued  and  copious  use  of 
spirit  of  hartshorn,  both  as  an  application  to  the 
part  affected,  and  also  internally  as  a  medicine. 

22.  The  Staggers.  This  disorder  is  variously 
known  by  the  names  of  the  daisy,  dizziness,  epi- 
lepsy, lethargy,  turning,  or  vertigo,  that  sufficiently 
indicate  its  symptoms,  the  chief  of  which  is  a 
lethargic  drowsiness,  accompanied  with  a  waver- 
ing, unsteady,  and  staggering  gait.  The  seat  of 
this  malady  is  either  in  the  brain  or  in  the  stomach. 
In  the  former  case,  it  is  usually  produced  lj,y  hy- 
datids, or  small  transparent  bladders  filled  with 
water,  or  by  some  other  matters  immediately  act^ 
ing  upon  the  brain.  Where  this  is  the  cause,  med- 
icine can  afford  no  assistance  whatever. 

23.  Where  the  staggers  is  caused  by  plethora, 
or  too  much  fulness  of  blood,  bleeding  and  cool- 
ing purgative  medicines  should  be  resorted  to.  As 
it  is  necessary  to  confine  the  beast  in  a  warm 
stable  or  shelter,  it  will  greatly  contribute  to  pro- 
mote the  circulation,  thus  necessarily  stagnated  for 
want  of  exercise,  by  rubbing  him  every  day  with 
dry  straw,  and  allowing  him  plenty  of  litter  to  pro- 
mote perspiration. 

24.  In  the  Mad  Staggers,  (which  disease,  how- 


206  DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 

ever,  is  chiefly  noticed  in  horses,)  the  animal  throws 
itself  about  with  the  greatest  violence,  and  exhibits 
every  symptom  of  inflammation  of  the  brain,  which 
is,  in  fact,  the  proper  name  of  the  disease.  Bleed 
till  the  animal  faint,  and  give  laxative  drenches  and 
clysters,  repeating  the  bleeding  if  necessary.  The 
diet  must  consist  of  bran. 

25.  Wuiuids.  Cattle,  in  general,  are  subject  to 
a  variety  of  accidents,  which  the  limits  of  our  work 
forbid  us  to  specify,  and  which,  indeed,  are  so 
numerous,  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  for  human 
foresight  to  provide  for  every  contingency.  Hence 
our  remarks  will  be  confined  to  the  most  appro- 
priate remedies  for  punctures,  braises,  or  common 
wounds. 

26.  In  cases  of  common,  fresh  wounds,  nothing 
more  is  necessary  than  to  apply  a  salve,  consisting 
of  white  lead,  and  oil  of  turpentine  incorporated, 
together  with  a  little  brandy,  to  the  lips  of  the  cut, 
which  should  be  drawn  as  closely  together  as  pos- 
sible ;  and  carefully  to  exclude  the  air.  But  if  the 
laceration  be  deep,  it  must  be  washed  with  warm 
milk  and  water ;  after  which,  the  wound  may  be 
filled  with  lint  or  tow,  dipped  in  a  digestive  oint- 
ment, composed  of  Venice  turpentine  and  balsam 
of  capivi,  of  each  one  ounce,  with  two  ounces  of 
yellow  basilicon.  The  wound  must,  as  in  the 
former  case,  be  kept  from  air  and  dirt,  or  its  heal- 
ing will  be  materially  retarded. 

27.  The  following  remedy  has  been  recom- 
mended as  a  certain  styptic  for  fresli  wounds  : 
Bruise  equal  parts  of  stinging  nettles  and  salt  in 
a  mortar,  till  a  pulp  or  mash  is  formed,  and  ap- 
ply it  to  the  wound  ;  tlip  bleeding  of  which,  it  is 


DISEASES    Oi'     CATTLE.  207 

asserted,  will  immediately  cease,  however  deep  or 
dangerous  such  wounds  may  be.  Not  having  had 
experience  of  its  efficacy,  we  cannot  vouch  for  its 
utility  ;  but  as  the  articles  are  always  at  hand, 
this  specific,  if  such  it  be,  certainly  deserves  a  fair 
trial. 

28.  Where,  however,  an  animal  has  received 
any  blows  or  bruises,  without  breaking  the  skin, 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  bathe  the  part  affected  with 
camphorated  spirit  of  wine  ;  but  if  the  swelling  be- 
come inflamed,  it  will  be  requisite  to  make  a  slight 
incision  below  the  bruised  spot,  in  order  to  promote 
suppuration,  after  which  the  following  salve,  or 
plaster,  may  be  applied. 

29.  Let  frankincense  and  Venice  turpentine,  of 
each  one  ounce,  be  gradually  incorporated  over  a 
slow  lire,  with  two  ounces  of  Burgundy  pitch  ;  and, 
when  of  a  proper  consistence,  let  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity be  spread  upon  a  pledget  of  tow  or  strong  linen 
rag,  and  well  fastened  on  with  a  bandage. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

DISEASES    PECULIAR    TO    OXEN,    COWS,   AND    CALVES. 

1.  Oxen  are  subject  to  few  maladies,  exclusive 
of  those  incident  to  neat  cattle  in  general,  except 
the  effects  produced  in  these  animals  by  the  oxfly, 
or  gadfly,  as  it  is  variously  termed.  This  insect 
has  spotted  wings,  and  a  yellow  breast ;  it  is  fiur- 
nished  with  a  long  proboscis,  armed  with  a  sharp 


208  1>ISEA6£S    OF    CATTLE. 

dart,  enclosing  two  others  within  it.  The  gadfly 
particularly  infests  oxen,  in  the  backs  of  which 
these  insects  deposite  their  eggs,  where  the  maggots 
are  nourished  during  the  month  of  June. 

2.  Throughout  the  summer  they  plague  the  cat- 
tle by  means  of  their  darts  to  such  a  degree,  that 
they  are  often  induced  to  rush  into  the  water  for 
relief  till  the  approach  of  night.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested, that  the  production  of  these  terrible  insects 
might  be  greatly  checked,  if  not  prevented,  by 
washing  oxen  and  cows  in  the  spring  with  a 
decoction  of  tobacco,  or  any  other  bitter  and  acrid 
vegetable. 

3.  Cough,  or  Housing.  This  disease  may  be 
easily  known,  by  the  shortness  of  breath  and  dif- 
ficult respiration  that  invariably  accompany  it. 
Sometimes  it  arises  from  extraneous  matters  ad- 
hering to  the  throat,  which  produce  an  unusual 
tickling  in  that  part :  but  more  commonly  it  origi- 
nates from  cows'  taking  cold. 

4.  A  regular  supply  of  sweet,  succulent  food,  to- 
gether with  warm  housing,  (especially  during  the 
winter,)  is  the  only  certain  remedy  that  can  be 
depended  upon  in  this  case  ;  though  some  have 
recommended  one  ounce  of  pulverized  aniseed,  a 
similar  quantity  of  tar,  and  the  vinegar  of  squills, 
to  be  infused  in  a  quart  of  warm  ale,  sweetened 
with  honey.  With  this  liquor  the  animal  must  be 
drenched  every  day  for  several  weeks,  otherwise 
no  beneficial  eflects  can  be  expected  from  such 
treatment. 

5.  Scouring,  or  Looseness,  is  generally  the  first 
malady  that  attacks  calves.  As  soon  as  the  loose- 
ness is  discovered,  it  has   been  recommended  to 


DISEASES    OF    HORSfiS.  209 

Stint  the  calf  in  its  diet,  and  to  give  an  egg,  boiled 
hard  and  chopped  small,  by  drenching,  fasting. 
A  mixture  of  pulverized  chalk  and  wheat  meal, 
made  into  balls  with  gin,  or  strong  ale,  has  also 
been  recommended  as  a  medicine  which  may  be 
administered  with  safety. 

6.  Cough.  Where  calves  are  exposed,  at  too 
early  an  age,  to  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather, 
before  they  acquire  sufficient  strength  to  undergo 
the  changes  of  this  climate,  they  are  liable  to  take 
frequent  colds  ;  the  consequence  of  which  is  a 
cough,  that  often  proves  fatal  if  it  be  neglected. 

7.  For  curing  this  malady,  it  has  been  recom- 
mended to  pour  half  a  table  spoonful  of  spirit  of 
turpentine  into  the  calfs  nostrils,  which  must  be 
held  upward,  in  order  that  the  turpentine  may  flow 
into  the  throat :  at  the  same  lime,  the  nose  should 
be  smeared  with  tar,  and  the  animal  kept  within 
doors  for  a  few  hours,  repeating  this  treatment  as 
often  as  the  cough  is  troublesome. 


CHAPTER  XLVI. 

DISEASES     OF     HORSES. 

1.  Op  all  domestic  animals,  the  horse  is,  per- 
haps, more  liable  to  disease  than  any  other ;  and 
this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  when  we  consider 
the  toil  he  is  frequently  forced  to  undergo^— the 
brutality  with  whicli  he  is  often  treated — the  ten- 
der age  at  which  he  is  very  generally  compelled 

O 


210  DISEASES    OF    HORSES. 

to  work — and  the  improper  treatment  he  commonly 
meets  with  from  those  even  who  are  most  desirous 
of  using  him  well,  and  who,  in  most  instances,  enr 
through  ignorance. 

2.  Bolts  are  short,  thick,  reddish  worms,  sar- 
rounded  by  small  prickles,  and  armed  with  two 
hooks  or  claws,  by  means  of  which  they  attach 
themselves  firmly  to  the  horse's  stomach.  They 
frequently  exist  in  such  quantities  as  to  cause 
many  serious  diseases,  not  only  of  the  viscus  in 
which  they  are  lodged,  but  also  of  the  brain  and 
nervous  system  ^  with  which  the  stomach  is  well 
known  to  sympathize. 

3w  Common  oil,  given  fasting,  in  doses  of  from 
ialf  a  pint  to  a  pint,  has  been  known  to  succeed  in 
destroying  these  insects.  But  as  good  a  method 
of  getting  rid  of  them  as  any,  is  to  keep  the  horse 
fasting  during  the  night,  and  in  the  morning  to 
give  him  about  a  pint  of  warm  milk,  sweetened 
with  honey;  and,  five  or  ten  minutes  after,  a 
drench  composed  of  one  qtsart  of  warm  water  or 
thin  gruel,  and  four  or  five  ounces  of  common  salt* 

4.  Several  other  species  of  worms  exist  in  the 
bowels  of  the  horse,  and  are  not  unfrequently  met 
with  even  in  the  large  blood  vessels.  The  most 
efficacious  mode  of  destroying  them,  is  to  give 
one  or  two  drachms  of  calomel  at  night ;  to  keep 
the  horse  fasting,  and  in  the  morning  to  administer 
the  following  ball : — 

Barbadoes  aloes  .....     5  drachms. 

Ginger l^  drachms. 

Oil  of  Carraway 15  or  20  drops. 

Castile  Soap 3  drachms. 

Sirup  enough  to  form  the  ball. 


DISEASES    OP    HORSES.  211 

5.  Or  a  drench  made  by  dissolving  four  or  five 
ounces  of  common  salt  in  a  quart  of  thin  gruel, 
and  three  or  four  ounces  of  olive  oil.  Previous  to 
physicking  a  horse,  he  should  be  kept  on  warm 
bran  mashes  for  a  couple  of  days  ;  and  care  must 
be  taken,  after  giving  the  medicine,  that  he  be  not 
exposed  to  cold  or  wet,  or  allowed  to  drink  cold 
water. 

6.  A  run  at  grass  is  perhaps  the  best  remedy 
for  worms  ;  and  where  this  cannot  be  had,  soiling 
on  green  food  will  be  found  beneficial.  Oil  of 
turpentine  in  doses  of  three  or  four  ounces  in  a 
pint  of  gruel,  is  a  very  efficacious  remedy  for 
worms. 

7.  Colic  is  generally  produced  by  an  overload- 
ed stomach ;  which,  impairing  the  digestive  pro- 
cess, causes  a  great  quantity  of  air  to  be  formed, 
which  distends  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and 
produces  those  symptoms  hereafter  to  be  noticed. 
It  is  also  frequently  induced  by  allowing  a  horse 
to  drink  cold  water  or  hard  well  water,  or  by  feed- 
ing him  on  new  oats  or  hay. 

8.  As  this  disease,  unless  relieved,  is  liable  to 
terminate  in  inflammation  of  the  intestines,  it  may 
perhaps  always  be  proper  to  bleed  to  the  extent  of 
two  or  three  quarts.  Also,  to  administer  a  clyster 
made  of  half  a  pound  or  more  of  common  salt,  and 
five  or  six  quarts  of  warm  water  or  gruel ;  to  which 
may  be  added  half  a  pint  of  olive  oil. 

9.  Then  gin  and  water,  and  brandy  and  water, 
are  perhaps  as  good  medicines  as  can  be  had  for 
this  purpose,  and  possess  the  advantage  of  being 
more  simple.  Four  ounces  of  spirit  to  twelve  of 
water,  are  the  proportions  in  which  they  may  be 


212  DISEASES   OF    HORSES. 

used ;  thai  is,  one  pint  of  spirit  and  water  should 
contain  one  fourth  spirit  and  three  fourths  water. 
Should  the  animal  not  appear  relieved  in  the  space 
of  half  an  hour,  the  above  remedies  may  be  again 
resorted  to  with  greater  freedom. 

10.  The  symptoms  of  colic  are  as  follows  :  The 
horse  appears  restless  and  uneasy  ;  frequently 
paws  his  litter  ;  looks  around  at  his  flanks  ;  falls 
down  ;  rolls  on  his  back ;  gets  up  suddenly,  and 
after  a  short  time  falls  again,  with  other  demon- 
strations of  extreme  pain. 

1 1 .  Cold,  or  Catarrh.  This  disorder  is  gener- 
ally induced  by  exposing  a  horse  to  cold  or  wet 
while  in  a  state  of  perspiration.  Its  symptoms  are 
dulness  and  watering  of  tlve  eyes,  cough,  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  sore  throat,  quickness  of  breath- 
ing, general  lassitude,  and  accelerated  pulse.  (A 
healthy  horse's  pulse  heats  from  thirty -six  to  forty 
strokes  in  a  minute.) 

12.  As  catarrh  is  an  inflammatory  complaint,  it 
is  proper  in  the  first  instance  to  bleed  largely  :  five 
or  six  quarts  of  blood  may  be  drawn,  unless  the 
animal  becomes  faint  before  that  quantity  be  ab- 
stracted. The  diet  should  consist  of  bran  mashes, 
containing  a  small  quantity  of  nitrate  of  potash, 
(about  half  an  ounce,)  given  three  times  a  day  ;  and 
the  horse  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  stable,  or  loose 
box,  or  turned  into  a  dry  yard. 

13.  When  the  throat  is  very  sore,  an  emolient 
drink,  composed  of  decoction  of  mr.rsh  mallows, 
or  flaxseed  with  mucilage  of  acacia  and  liquorice, 
may  be  given.  When  catarrh  terminates  in  chronic 
cough,  the  best  remedy  is  attention  to  diet,  exercise, 
and  grooming.      The  horse  should   never  be  al- 


DISEASES    OF    HORSES.  213 

lowed  to  overload  his  stomach,  especially  with  hay  ; 
his  bowels  should  be  kept  moderately  open  by 
means  of  bran  mashes  or  clysters,  when  requisite. 

14.  Take  one  ounce  of  bruised  squills,  three  of 
garlic,  and  twelve  of  vinegar  ;  macerate  the  squills 
and  garlic  in  the  vinegar  for  one  hour  in  a  moder- 
ately warm  oven  ;  then  strain  off  the  liquid,  and 
add  one  pound  of  honey  or  molasses.  Three  or 
four  ounces  of  this  mixture  may  be  given  at  a  time 
in  bad  coughs  ;  and  when  great  irritation  appears 
to  exist  about  the  windpipe,  one  teaspoonful  of 
tincture  of  opium  may  be  added  to  every  dose. 

15.  Bruises  should  always  be  poulticed,  or  fo- 
mented with  hot  water.  A  towel  dipped  in  greasy 
water  is  a  good  application.  Galls.  When  a 
horse  is  galled  by  the  saddle  or  harness,  or  when 
he  is  chafed  between  the  arm  and  chest,  an  acci- 
dent which  frequently  happens  in  travelling  through 
muddy  roads,  the  following  lotion  will  be  found 
serviceable  : — 

Sulphate  of  zinc I  ounce. 

Super  acetate  of  lead      ....     1  ounce. 
Water 1  quart. 

16.  Strains.  The  best  method  of  preventing 
the  inflammation  attendant  upon  a  strain  is,  imme- 
diately on  the  receipt  of  the  injury  to  bleed  and 
wrap  the  injured  part  in  a  large  poultice.  The 
horse  should  then  be  physicked  and  kept  to  a  lo\y 
diet.  Some  people,  instead  of  poultices,  employ- 
cold  applications ;  as 

Super  acetate  of  lead       ....     1  ounce. 

Vinegar        4  ounces. 

Water 1  pint. 


214  SHEEP. 

Their  effect  is  the  same  as  the  poultice;  each 
tending  to  reduce  inflammation.  On  the  whole, 
we  are  inclined  to  give  the  preference  to  the  poul- 
tice. 

17.  When  a  strain  is  neglected  for  some  time, 
and  the  inflammation  has  gone  off*,  bleeding  will 
be  improper.  Blistering,  and,  in  some  cases,  fi- 
ring must  be  resorted  to.  There  are  several  sorts 
of  strains ;  as  strains  of  the  back  sinews,  of  the 
pastern  joint,  of  the  shoulder,  loins,  &c. ;  but  our 
limits  do  not  permit  us  to  give  a  detailed  account 
of  their  different  symptoms.  The  rationale  of  their 
treatment  is  in  all  cases  the  same. 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 

SHEEP. 

1.  The  Saxon  and  Spanish  merino,  South  Down, 
New  Leicester,  Bakewell,  and  Policerate  are  some 
of  the  best  varieties.  The  Saxony  sheep  imported 
into  this  country  were  from  a  variety  of  flocks,  of 
which  the  electoral  was  the  parent. 

2.  The  Saxon  and  Spanish  merino  are  the  most 
profitable  sheep  for  fleece.  The  electoral  were 
originally  from  Spain.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  one  was  carried  from  Spain  as 
a  present  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  ;  and  from 
thence  they  derived  their  name.  The  South  Down 
and  New  Leicester  are  the  most  proper  for  their 


SHEEP.  215 

mutton.     The  Policerate  are  remarkable  only  for 
their  four  horns, 

3.  Proper  Soil.  Sheep  deHght  in  pure,  free 
air  and,  dry  pasture,  and  seem  constitutionally 
fitted  for  rocky  and  stony  situations ;  and,  indeed, 
it  is  the  opinion  of  many  intelligent  men,  and 
with  much  reason,  that  stony  uplands  are  essen- 
tial to  their  health ;  that  on  rough,  dry  soils, 
they  are  not  so  subject  to  the  many  diseases 
which  afflict  them,  as  when  kept  on  moist,  soft 
places. 

4.  Sheep,  if  fed  in  a  country  of  plains  and  rich 
pasture,  increase  in  size,  and  their  fleece  becomes 
heavier  and  coarser.  If  in  an  elevated  country, 
where  the  pasture  is  short  and  thin,  the  size  and 
fleece  diminish,  while  the  texture  o(  the  latter  is 
improved. 

5.  Caretaking.  As  soon  as  sheep  are  brought 
into  the  yard  for  winter,  the  different  kinds  of  lambs» 
ewes,  and  wethers  should  be  carefully  separated, 
and  kept  apart.  It  is  important  that  those  in  one 
yard  should  be  as  nearly  of  a  size  as  possible ; 
then  there  will  be  no  stronger  ones  among  them, 
to  drive  the  weaker  ones  from  their  food.  All  will 
then  feed  alike  and  do  well. 

6.  The  flocks  ought  to  be  as  small  as  we  can 
conveniently  make  them.  Each  flock  should  not 
consist  of  more  than  from  fifty  to  one  hundred — 
fifty  is  the  better  number. 

7.  It  is  also  necessary  to  have  a  separate  yard 
for  old  and  poor  sheep,  and  if  there  are  any  in  the 
flock  that  do  not  subsequently  thrive  well,  they 
should  be  removed  into  what  is  commonly  called 
the  hospital. 


816  SHEEP. 

8.  These  hospital  sheep,  by  being  few  in  nuni' 
ber,  having  a  good  warm  shed,  a  sheaf  of  oats,  or  a 
few  screenings  from  under  the  fanning  mill,  once 
a  day,  will  soon  begin  to  improve. 

9.  Sheep  ought  to  be  rather  sparingly  fed,  three 
times  a  day,  and  out  of  racks,  to  prevent  them  from 
running  over  and  trampling  on  the  hay.  It  js  of 
service  to  give  them  a  feeding  of  straw,  or  pine 
tops,  if  you  please  ;  it  invigorates  their  health,  and 
makes  a  change  in  their  food. 

10.  They  should  be  daily  watered,  and  if  their 
hay  has  not  been  salted,  likewise  have  a  lick  of 
salt  occasionally.  Sheep  should  have  access  to 
sheds,  v/here  they  may  be  fed  in  stormy  weather. 

11.  If  they  can  always  go  to  a  shed,  they  will 
resort  to  it  as  an  indulgence  ;  this  indulgence  will 
soon  become  a  habit ;  they  will  have  no  inclination 
to  motion,  but  will  become  debilitated  and  lose  their 
appetite.  It  would  be  well  for  farmers  to  make  it 
a  practice  to  count  their  sheep  once  a  day,  to  see 
if  any  are  missing ;  to  examine  them,  and  see  if 
any  are  sick,  and  if  there  are,  to  remove  them  from 
the  flock,  and  take  care  of  them  until  they  are  en- 
tirely recovered. 

12.  Raising  Lambs,  Lambs  should  not  be  shorn 
the  first  season  ;  they  need  their  fleece  to  protect 
them  during  the  cold  weather,  and  it  is  found  that 
nothing  is  gained  by  early  shearing.  Lambs  should 
always  be  left  at  home  when  sheep  are  to  be  washed, 
as  they  are  saved  much  fatigue ;  besides  the  ad- 
vantage of  having  the  sheep  go  directly  home  after 
washing,  without  any  trouble. 

13.  To  ensure  the  life  and  health  of  every  lamb, 
the  ewes  should  be  in  good  condition — should  be 


SHEEP.  217 

fed  with  fresh  grass,  as  it  adds  greatly  to  the  quan- 
tity as  well  as  quality  of  the  milk.  Lambs  should 
be  taken  from  the  sheep  the  last  of  August ;  and 
then  fed,  for  three  months,  on  oats  in  the  bundle. 

14.  Lambs  will  live  twenty-four  hours,  and  even 
longer,  without  any  nourishment ;  and,  as  a  general 
rule,  should  not  be  fed  until  you  discover  by  their 
actions  they  are  seeking  food  ;  then  they  will  drink 
without  any  trouble.  They  should  be  furnished 
with  as  much  milk  as  they  will  drink. 

15.  Food.  Sheep  should  have  plenty  of  salt. 
They  should  be  fed  on  carrots,  potatoes,  turnips, 
and  a  little  coarse  grain  occasionally.  If  you  have 
not  these  roots,  provide  them  another  year  ;  for 
there  is  no  spring  food  more  profitable  than  tur- 
nips. They  are  extremely  nourishing,  and  tend 
greatly  to  enrich  and  increase  the  milk  of  the 
ewes. 

16.  Sheep,  through  the  winter,  should  be  fed  on 
rutabaga  and  mangel-wurtzel,  regularly,  once  a 
day.  Dry  provender  and  green  food  which  do  not 
abound  in  cold  and  watery  juices,  are  most  appro- 
priate and  salutary  for  them. 

17.  Diseases  of  Sheep.  The  diseases  of  sheep 
are  various,  and  often  prove  fatal.  They,  there- 
fore, need  our  attention.  Of  these  diseases,  the 
most  to  be  feared  is  rot,  which  often  extends  over 
whole  districts  of  country.  It  prevails  most  in  wet 
seasons,  and  at  this  time  is  the  most  fatal.  The 
chief  cause  of  this  disease  is  pasturing  on  wet  land. 
It  is  well  known  that  sheep  kept  on  dry  soil  are 
seldom,  if  ever,  troubled  with  rot. 

18.  The  animal  affected  does  not  at  once  show 
symptoms  of  disease,  but  frequently  reniain^s  fgr  a 


218  SHEEP. 

long  time  in  apparent  health ;  and  likewise  shows 
a  great  tendency  to  feed. 

19.  The  signs  of  rottenness  in  sheep  are  un- 
doubtedly familiar  to  all  shepherds.  The  sheep 
becomes  emaciated,  its  eye  becomes  heavy  and 
glassy ;  the  wool,  on  being  pulled  slightly,  comes 
readily  from  the  skin ;  the  breath  becomes  fetid ; 
and  as  the  disease  progresses,  the  skin  is  often 
marked  with  spots,  and  the  waste  of  flesh  increases 
until  the  sheep  dies. 

20.  The  rot  often  attacks  a  large  flock  at  once, 
and  sometimes  only  two  or  three  of  a  flock.  Du- 
ring the  progress  of  this  disease,  the  fluke,  a  small 
animal,  appears  on  the  parts  connected  with  the 
liver.  These  animals  increase  as  the  disease  ad- 
vances ;  and  are  sometimes  very  numerous. 

21.  Remedy. — Salt,  in  most  cases,  prevents  and 
cures  this  disease.  As  soon  as  the  symptoms  ap- 
pear, salt  should  be  placed  near  the  animals  in 
pans  or  troughs,  in  large  quantities ;  and  the  sheep 
will  readily  consume  it.  In  the  early  stages  of 
this  complaint,  change  of  food  is  highly  beneficial ; 
this  alone,  in  some  cases,  has  been  found  suflicient 
to  effect  a  cure. 

22.  The  Hunger  Rot.  This  arises  from  the 
want  of  sufllicient  food,  which  produces  an  unhealthy 
state  of  the  bowels,  leamiess,  and  often  death.  In 
this  disease  the  wool  generally  falls  off"  the  animal. 
Remedy. — Plenty  of  nutritious  food. 

23.  Pining.  This  disease  is  common  among 
sheep,  and  sometimes  proves  very  fatal,  destroy- 
ing whole  flocks.  This  disease  arises  from  the 
want  of  exercise,  the  want  of  water,  and  from  feed- 
ing on  very  dry  pasture.     They  should  also  have 


SHEEP.  219 

access  to  running  water.  Remedy. — Change  of  food 
will  very  often  remove  the  disease ;  if  this  should 
fail,  the  sheep  must  be  removed  to  a  richer  and 
moister  pasture.  They  should  have  access  also 
to  a  running  stream. 

24.  Diarrhcta  or  Dysentery.  These  are  also 
diseases  of  sheep.  Diarrhoea  is  most  generally 
produced  by  a  too  hasty  growth  of  grass  in  spring. 
It  is  frequently  hurtful  to  lambs.  Remedy. — The 
sheep  should  immediately  be  removed  to  a  drier 
pasture ;  and  be  fed  with  corn  until  they  recover. 


CHAPTER  XLVin. 

SHEEP — CONTINUED. 

1,  Scab.  Sheep  are  also  troubled  with  diseases 
of  the  skin.  The  principal  one  is  called  scab ; 
it  may  be  known  by  the  extreme  itching,  and 
eruptions  of  the  skin.  Remedy. — Flour  of  sulphur 
mixed  with  a  little  lard  or  fresh  butter.  The  wool 
should  be  opened,  and  the  skin  well  rubbed  with 
this  preparation,  A  decoction  of  tobacco,  and 
spirit  of  turpentine  mixed  with  a  little  soft  soap, 
have  also  a  very  good  effect. 

2.  Th«  decoction  of  tobacco  may  be  obtained 
by  boiling  the  tabacco  in  brine  or  salt  water. 
The  liquid,  when  prepared,  is  applied  from  a  ves- 
sel like  a  teapot  with  a  spout,  or  from  a  bottle 
with  a  quill  passed  through  the  cork.  A  person  lays 
the  wool  back  in  lines  so  as  to  expose  the  skin, 


220  SHEEP. 

and  then  pours  out  the  liquid  along  the  lines  up- 
on it 

3.  If  the  distemper  be  very  violent,  a  mercurial 
'  preparation  will  be  necessary.     This  can  be  pro- 
cured in  the  apothecary  stores,  under  the  name  of 
sheep  ointment.     It  is  made  in  balls,  and   when 
used,  it  is  dissolved  in  oil,  and  applied  to  the  skin. 

4.  Foot  Rot.  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
foot,  followed  by  breaking  out  of  sores  in  the  hoof. 
It  generally  occasions  the  entire  lameness  of  the 
animal.  Remedy, — The  tainted  part  of  the  hoof 
must  be  pared  away,  and  the  ulcerous  matter  re- 
moved ;  the  foot  should  then  be  washed  with  soap 
and  hot  water,  and  the  surface  be  dressed  with 
some  caustic,  the  best  of  which  is  muriate  of  anti- 
mony. 

5.  In  the  early  stages  of  this  disease  it  can  be 
cured  by  paring,  and  by  cleansing  the  hoof  with 
soap  and  water,  and  dipping  it  in  boiling  tar.  An- 
other remedy  for  this  disease  :  The  hoof  should 
be  scraped  clean,  and  spirit  of  turpentine  poured 
in.  This  should  be  done  once  in  eight  days  till 
the  cure  is  effected.  Three  or  four  applications 
are  generally  sufficient. 

6.  Hydatids,  or  Water  in  the  Head.  This  is  a 
common  occurrence.  The  cause  of  this  complaint 
is  a  small  animal,  which  finds  its  way  into  the 
brain  ;  which,  if  not  speedily  removed,  causes  the 
death  of  the  sheep.  This  creature  resembles  a 
bladder  filled  with  water,  and  for  a  long  time  was 
supposed  by  many  shepherds  to  be  water. 

7.  The  hydatids  is  frequently  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  body,  as  the  liver  and  spleen.  When 
the  brain  of  the  sheep  is  diseased  it  shows  symp- 


SHEEP.  221 

toms  of  great  pain  ;  leans  its  head  to  one  side,  and 
continues  turning  round,  and  finally  dies. 

8.  Remedy. — The  remedy  for  this  complaint  is 
to  reach  the  hydatids,  and  to  extract  it,  or  to  pierce 
it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  destroy  its  life.  When 
it  is  situated  at  the  surface  of  the  brain,  the  part 
feels  soft,  and  it  may  be  reached  by  an  awl,  or  by 
a  sharp  penknife.  A  little  round  piece  of  the 
scull  is  to  be  cut,  and  lifted  up  like  a  lid. 

9.  The  hydatids  being  made  bare,  is  to  be  taken 
out  with  pincers,  and  the  liquid  absorbed  by  a 
small  sponge.  The  scull  is  then  to  be  put  back 
into  its  place,  and  dressed  with  tar  on  a  bit  of  kid. 
When  the  hydatids  is  in  the  heart  of  the  brain, 
it  can  be  reached  by  putting  a  fine  wire  up  the  nos- 
trils. 

10.  Sheep  Bug.  This  generally  prevails  where 
the  sheep  are  in  an  unhealthy  state.  The  bug  is 
of  a  flat  form  ;  and  is  found  about  the  throat  and 
other  parts,  and  occasions  great  irritation.  /2cm- 
edy. — Turpentine,  tar,  or  tobacco  juice,  seldom 
fails  to  effect  a  cure. 

11.  Sheep  Maggot.  This  is  the  most  destruc- 
tive enemy  that  attacks  sheep.  The  fly  lays  her 
eggs  on  the  skin  of  the  sheep,  and  the  larvae  are 
hatched  in  great  numbers,  and  grow  with  aston- 
ishing quickness.  They  frequently  spread  over 
the  .whole  body,  and  consume  the  skin,  and  eat  the 
flesh. 

12.  The  sheep  manifest  great  suffering,  and  run 
with  great  rapidity,  until  they  become  exhausted, 
and  finally  lie  down  and  perish.  In  moist  and 
warm  seasons,  the  maggot  is  most  troublesome. 
The  shepherd  should  be   careful  to  inspect  his 


222  SHEEP. 

sheep  every  day,  and  clip  away  all  the  dirty  pieces 
of  wool.  Remedy. — The  maggot  may  effectually 
be  destroyed  by  a  solution  of  the  corrosive  subli- 
mate. 

13.  Cure  for  Sheep  Ticks.  Take  for  fifty  sheep 
about  two  pounds  of  tobacco,  soak  it  five  or  six 
days  in  two  gallons  of  water ;  then  strain  the  liquor 
ofT:  put  into  a  pot  over  a  slow  fire  five  quarts  of 
tar,  ten  quarts  of  lard,  stir  them  well  till  melted ; 
then  pour  it  into  the  tobacco  liquor,  mixing  it  tho- 
roughly. 

14.  Then  add  thirty-five  quarts  of  old  buttermilk ; 
and  when  about  milk  warm,  take  a  sheep,  lay  ii 
on  its  side,  open  the  wool,  and  apply  the  remedy ; 
taking  care  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the  sheep  in 
such  a  position  that  the  liquid  will  run  all  over  the 
skin,  and  not  on  the  wool.  One  quart  is  sufficient 
for  each  sheep.  A  vessel  with  a  small  spout  should 
be  used,  to  prevent  its  pouring  too  fast,  or  spilling 
over  the  wool. 

15.  The  right  time  for  this  operation  is  a  warm 
dry  day  about  the  first  of  March.  Shearing.  This 
should  be  performed  about  the  fifteenth  of  June, 
after  the  cold  rains  have  subsided.  Great  care 
should  be  taken,  while  shearing,  not  to  cut  the  skin 
of  the  sheep  ;  as  it  not  only  makes  the  animal 
poor,  but  makes  the  wool  which  grows  over  the 
cut  places  much  coarser. 

16.  Care  of  the  Wool.  Greasing  the  sheep  once 
every  six  months  is  highly  recommended  by  some ; 
as  it  is  thought  beneficial  to  both  the  carcass  and 
the  wool.  Wool  which  has  been  shorn  two  or 
three  years  does  not  spin  or  fill  so  well  as  when 
kept  only  one  year. 


THE    FARMYARD.  '^^23 

17.  Wool  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  but  not  a 
very  warm  situation.  The  wool  intended  for  ex- 
portation should  be  carefully  folded  up,  each  fleece 
by  itself,  and  tied  and  sent  to  market.  The  best 
wool  is  raised  on  healthy  sheep,  and  on  those 
which  are  usually  kept  in  good  order,  and  receive 
proper  food. 

18.  How  to  tell  the  Age  of  Sheep.  The  age  of 
sheep  may  be  known  by  examining  the  front  teeth. 
They  are  eight  in  number  and  all  of  a  size ;  and 
appear  the  first  year.  In  the  second  year,  the 
two  middle  ones  drop  out,  and  two  larger  ones 
supply  their  places.  The  third  year  two  other 
small  teeth,  one  from  each  side,  fall  out,  and  are 
replace'd  by  two  large  ones  ;  so  that  there  are  now 
four  large  teeth  in  the  middle,  and  two  pointed 
ones  each  side. 

19.  The  fourth  year  there  are  six  large  teeth, 
and  two  small  ones  remaining,  one  at  each  end  of 
the  range.  In  the  fifth  year,  all  the  small  teeth 
are  lost,  and  the  whole  of  the  front  teeth  are  large. 
In  the  sixth  year  all  begin  to  be  worn,  and  in  the 
seventh  some  drop  out  or  are  broken. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 

THE  FARMYARD. 


1.  No  subject  of  rural  economy  is  of  greater 
importance  than  the  judicious  disposition  of  the 
outbuildings  of  a  farm  ;  yet  there  is,  perhaps,  less 


224  THE    FARMYARD. 

consideration  bestowed  on  this  point  than  on  any 
other.  It  is  obvious  to  the  most  common  observer, 
that  the  size  of  the  various  outhouses  ought  to  be 
regulated  by  the  extent  of  the  farm,  and  also  by 
that  branch  of  husbandry  which  is  carried  on. 

2.  In  a  dairy  farm,  there  are  fewer  buildings 
requisite  than  in  any  other  department  of  agri- 
culture ;  but  it  is  nevertheless  highly  necessary 
to  have  distinct  buildings  for  the  various  sorts  of 
cattle ;  and  the  whole  of  these  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged and  distributed  as  to  facilitate  the  opera- 
tions of  the  labourers. 

3.  Further  to  promote  this  object,  the  whole  of 
the  buildings  should,  if  possible,  be  placed  within 
the  same  enclosure.  The  yard  in  which  they  are 
situated  should  also  be  secured  against  all  outward 
access  ;  if  the  buildings  are  not  so  connected  as 
to  form  a  complete  enclosure,  the  spaces  between 
them  should  be  filled  up  with  wall,  or  high  paling, 
and  the  yard  should  be  closed  by  solid  gates. 

4.  Where  chalk  can  be  commanded,  the  surface 
or  bottom  of  the  yard  should  be  bedded  or  coated 
with  it,  or  with  some  other  material  impenetrable 
to  water  ;  by  which  means  the  moisture,  in  the 
smallest  degree,  will  be  effectually  prevented,  and 
consequently  a  great  saving  obtained  in  the  article 
of  manure.  The  construction  of  the  yard  should 
be  nearly  concave,  or  shelving  to  the  centre,  in 
order  to  collect  the  drainage. 

5.  In  order  to  avoid  this  expense,  which  is,  in 
fact,  very  trifling,  most  farmers  bottom  the  yards 
with  earth,  or  rubbish,  to  absorb  the  drainage,  and 
thus  form  a  compost  in  the  yard  itself.  This 
saving,  even  were  it  larger,  can  be  of  no  impor- 


T«E    FARMYARD.  225 

tance  in  comparison  with  the  injury  done  to  the 
store  cattle  by  thus  retaining  the  moisture  under- 
neath them.  Dryness  of  situation  is  of  the  most 
essential  consequence  to  their  health,  and  indis- 
pensable  to  their  thriving. 

6.  The  driest  bottoming  is  furze  ;  but  stubble, 
potato  tops,  or  any  other  loose  refuse,  will  answer 
the  purpose  ;  over  which  the  yard  should  be  bed- 
ded deep  in  straw.  Earth,  though  most  valuable 
in  a  compost,  should  never  be  used  within  the 
yard.  Of  the  principal  offices  requisite  to  a  farm, 
we  now  proceed  to  give  an  outline, 

7.  Ox  Stails  or  Feeding  Houses.  The  structure 
of  th^se  buildings  is  very  simple.  It  is  requisite 
that  each  interval,  or  stall,  should  not  only  be  pro- 
vided with  a  crib,  for  dry  food,  but  there  should 
also  be,  in  the  centre  of  each,  a  trough,  for  the 
reception  of  water,  which  may  be  conducted  into 
them  by  means  of  tubes  leading  from  the  pump. 
The  size  must  depend  upon  the  manner  in  which 
the  farm  is  occupied  ;  but  it  ought  never  to  be  for- 
gotten, that  the  beast  should  have  ample  accommo- 
dation. 

8.  In  order  to  erect  feeding  houses  to  advantage, 
great  attention  should  be  bestowed  on  their  situa- 
tion. They  ought  to  lie  dry,  and  not  be  exposed 
too  much  to  the  sun,  or  to  the  heat  of  the  weather. 
It  will  be  advisable  to  lay  the  floors  in  a  gently 
sloping  direction,  with  proper  drains,  and  also  for 
the  more  easy  removal  of  the  litter. 

9.  The  floors  are  variously  paved.  By  some 
it  has  been  recommended  to  have  the  pavement  of 
stone  pitched  ;  but  the  least  expensive  method  is  to 
Jay  the  floor  with  bricks.     The  doors  also  should 


226  THE    FARMYARD. 

be  so  hung  as  to  open  outward,  by  which  means  a 
waste  of  room  will  be  prevented,  and  the  sheds 
will  be  rendered  more  secure  against  intruders. 
Their  safety  will  also  be  greatly  increased  by 
hanging  them  with  a  fall  to  the  catch. 

10.  The  vridth  of  stalls  is  various.  For  two 
middle-sized  working  oxen,  seven  feet  have  been 
found  sufficient,  and  nine  feet  for  those  of  a  larger 
size.  Cows  require  equal,  if  not  more  room,  for 
the  convenience  of  milking  them  ;  and  it  is  always 
best  to  place  them  in  single  stalls.  The  stalls 
should  not  be  made  too  wide,  lest  the  cattle  turn 
round  in  them  ;  for  thus  the  stronger  beasts  would 
have  an  opportunity  of  injuring  their  weaker  fel- 
lows. This  danger  may  be  avoided  by  placing 
a  post  in  the  middle  of  the  stall,  immediately  be- 
fore the  shoulders  of  the  cattle. 

11.  Where  the  system  of  stallfeeding  is  adopt- 
ed on  a  large  scale,  it  will  be  necessary  that  there 
be  a  regular  temperature  maintained.  Otherwise 
the  confined  respiration  of  many  animals  must 
necessarily  tend  to  generate  disease.  Hence, 
though  a  loft  may  be  built  over  the  stalls  for  the 
reception  of  provender,  a  funnel  may  be  passed 
through  it  from  the  ceiling  of  the  feeding  house 
to  the  roof,  which  will  allow  of  the  escape  of  the 
foul  air. 

12.  It  will  also  be  advisable  to  construct  latticed 
windows,  or  apertures,  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  ground,  at  the  gable  ends  of  the  feeding 
houses,  and  to  supply  them  with  shutters,  which 
may  be  closed  or  withdrawn  as  the  season  of  the 
year,  or  the  temperature  of  the  weather,  may  ren- 
der  necessary.     Where    it   is   practicable,    such 


THE    FARMYARD.  227 

openings  should  be  towards  the  north  or  east,  in 
order  that  they  may  derive  some  benefit  from  the 
genial  rays  of  the  morning  sun,  and  from  the 
cooler  air  of  the  day  in  summer.  The  large  front 
doors  may  vsometimes  be  set  open  for  the  purpose 
o(  further  ventilation. 

13.  Various  modes  are  employed  for  securing 
cattle  in  their  stalls  ;  but  when  the  common  method 
of  tying  up  is  insufficient  for  the  security  of  vi- 
cious beasts,  the  following  will  be  found  to  answer 
the  purpose  :  A  fixed  iron  chain,  by  way  of  a 
halter,  should  be  fastened  to  a  standard,  mortised 
into  the  front  side  of  the  manger  and  the  joist 
above. 

14.  It  is  composed  of  two  parts :  one  of  these 
has  sixteen  links,  and  is  two  feet  in  length,  meas- 
uring from  the  staple  ;  the  other,  which  contains 
twenty-six  links,  measures  about  thirty-nine  inches, 
and  serves  as  a  collar.  At  one  end  of  this  collar 
chain  there  is  a  ring,  about  one  inch  in  diameter, 
and  at  the  opposite  extremity  a  key,  three  or  four 
inches  in  length,  having  a  hole  at  its  middle,  by 
which  it  is  joined  to,  and  freely  plays  in  the  last 
link. 

15.  The  first  chain,  which  by  one  end  is  fixed 
to  the  manger,  is  by  the  other  linked  into  a  mid- 
dle link  of  the  collar  chain,  and  thus  forms  two 
arms,  which,  being  thrown  round  the  neck  of  the 
beast,  and  the  key  being  thrust  through  the  ring, 
and  placed  at  a  bar  across  it,  make  a  very  secure 
fastening. 


228  THE    FARMYARD. 


CHAPTER  L. 

THE    FARMYARD CONTINUED. 

1.  Among  the  smaller  buildings  of  a  farm,  not 
the  least  worthy  of  notice  is  a  cart  and  tool  house, 
for  the  reception  of  the  wagons  and  implements-, 
which,  when  not  actually  employed,  are  often 
heedlessly  left  on  the  spot  where  they  are  last 
used. 

2.  An  open  spot,  free  to  everj'^  wind,  should  be 
selected.  The  roof  ought  to  be  supported  on  pil- 
lars, high  enough  to  admit  a  loaded  wagon,  and 
containing  lofts  for  the  care  of  light  implements, 
sacks,  or  other  small  spare  articles.  But  as  the 
only  object  is  to  preserve  the  carriages  and  tools 
from  the  effects  of  wet,  this  can  be  attained  by 
mere  sheds,  the  most  economical  mode  of  erecting 
which  is,  to  project  a  roof  from  the  back  of  a  barn 
or  stable. 

3.  Calf  Pens.  In  most  parts  of  this  country,  it 
is  the  practice  to  appropriate  a  part  of  the  cow- 
house to  the  reception  of  calves  ;  a  measure  which 
caimot  fail  of  producing  uneasiness  among  the 
cows,  which  often  withhold  their  milk  in  conse- 
quence of  the  bleating  of  the  young  animals.  It 
is  preferable  to  have  the  pens  at  such  a  distance 
from  the  feeding  house  that  the  cows  cannot  hear 
them. 

4.  The  construction  of  these  buildings  is  so 
simple  and  so  well  known,  that  a  particular  de- 
scription is  deemed  unnecessary.      They  should 


THB    FARMYARD.  229 

be  latticed,  so  as  to  admit  fr^sh  air,  as  a  moderate 
and  rather  cool  temperature  ought  at  all  times  to 
be  kept  in  calf  pens.  Light  should  be  excluded, 
as  darkness  inclines  all  animals  to  rest,  and  the 
quieter  calves  are  kept,  the  better  they  will  thrive. 
The  strictest  cleanliness  should  also  be  observed, 
and  every  attention  paid  to  keep  them  drj'  and 
sweet. 

5.  If  possible,  they  should  open  either  into  the 
stackyard  or  the  orchard,  or  some  small  and  quiet 
enclosure,  in  order  to  afford  an  opportunity  of  oc- 
casionally turning  out  calves  that  are  intended  to 
be  reared.  When  the  profit  arising  from  the  rear- 
ing of  swine  is  duly  considered,  it  will  be  admitted, 
that  the  rearing  of  a  piggery  demands  nearly  as 
much  attention  as  a  dairy. 

6.  A  piggery  should  be  in  a  circle,  or  it  must 
fail  in  convenience.  xVccording  to  this  idea,  in 
the  centre  there  should  be  the  boiling  or  steam- 
ing house,  with  a  granary  for  corn,  meal,  &c. 
Around  this,  a  range  of  cisterns  ought  to  be  dis- 
posed, in  divisions,  for  receiving  immediately  from 
the  steam  apparatus,  and  also  by  tubes  from  the 
granary. 

7.  Around  these  should  run  a  path,  then  a  fence 
or  paling,  in  which  are  the  troughs,  with  hang- 
ing lids,  for  supplying  food  directly  from  the  cis- 
terns, on  one  side,  and  for  hogs  feeding  on  the 
other.  A  range  of  yard  next.  The  potato  stores, 
or  />ye^,  should  at  one  end  point  near  to  the  en- 
trance, and  water  must  be  raised  to  the  coppers 
and  cisterns  at  once  by  a  pump ;  a  trough,  or  other 
conveyance  from  the  dairy  to  the  <;isterns,  for  milk, 
whey,  &;c. 


230  THE    FARMYARD. 

'8.  An  arrangement  like  this  would  be  very  con- 
venient, while  the  expense  attending  it  would  be 
inconsiderable.  Great  profit  might  be  derived  by 
setting  apart  a  plot  of  natural  or  artificial  grasses, 
into  which  the  sAvine  might  be  turned  at  pleasure. 
Those  who  do  not  possess  a  convenient  pig  ap- 
paratus, can  have  little  idea  of  the  great  use  of  it 
in  making  manure.  This  alone  becomes  an  object, 
that  would  justify  any  good  farmer  in  going  to  a 
certain  expense,  for  attaining  so  profitable  a  part 
of  what  ought  to  be  his  farmyard  system. 

9.  This  plan,  however,  is  calculated  only  for 
those  farms  where  the  fattening  of  swine  is  carried 
on  extensively.  Where  these  animals  are  kept 
chiefly  for  domestic  consumption,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient if  hog  sties  be  constructed  with  due  regard 
to  warmth  and  dryness,  and  divided  into  various 
partitions  for  the  reception  of  swine,  according  to 
their  age  and  varieties. 

10.  Each  division  should  be  between  six  and 
seven  feet  in  width,  of  such  height  as  the  largest 
pigs  can  conveniently  enter,  and  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  small  space  sufficiently  capacious  for 
holding  the  feeding  troughs. 

11.  If  possible,  troughs  should  be  so  arranged, 
thai  offal,  milk,  &c.,  may  be  conveyed  into  them 
from  the  milkhouse,  or  scalding  house,  by  means 
of  pipes  ;  and  as  these  animals  often  thrust  their 
feet  into  the  troughs,  and  thus  waste  a  considera- 
ble portion  of  food,  this  may  be  avoided  by  fixing 
sticks  in  a  frame  over  the  troughs,  not  unlike  a 
rack  ;  or  a  thin  piece  of  plank  may  be  nailed  on 
the  back  part  of  the  troughs,  and  so  project  as  to 
allow  their  heads  only  to  enter. 


THE    FARMYARD.  231 

12.  This  object  may  also  be  attained  when 
Bwine  are  put  up  to  fatten  on  dry  food,  by  fixing 
a  conical  hopper  (holding  any  given  quantity)  in 
a  trough  with  the  broad  end  upward,  and  covered 
with  a  strong  lid.  At  the  lower  end  should  be  an 
aperture  for  giving  out  the  meat  into  the  trough, 
where  the  animal  may  eat  it  as  it  falls,  without 
being  capable  of  spoiling  or  wasting  any  portion 
of  it. 

13.  By  adopting  the  expedient  here  suggested, 
the  further  advantage  will  be  derived  in  fattening 
swine,  that,  by  feeding  more  leisurely  than  in  the 
common  mode,  their  food  will  probably  be  more 
thoroughly  masticated ;  the  effect  of  which  has 
been  thought  to  render  their  fat  more  firm,  and  of 
a  better  flavour, 

14.  Root  Houses  are  buildings,  the  utility  of 
which,  on  those  farms  v/here  the  system  of  stall- 
feeding  is  adopted,  is  very  great.  They  should 
adjoin  the  feeding  house,  and  be  provided  with  a 
steamer,  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  the  vegeta- 
bles for  the  use  of  the  cattle.  This  simple  machine, 
in  fact,  is  indispensably  necessary  on  all  farms 
where  the  feeding  of  cattle  is  conducted  to  any  ex- 
tent, and  will  not  be  found  useless  even  on  those 
in  which  it  is  not  an  object  of  attention. 

15.  An  apparatus  for  steaming  consists  of  a 
brick  or  stone  stove,  about  three  feet  in  every  di- 
rection, in  which  is  fixed  a  pot  or  kettle,  six  or 
eight  inches  deep,  and  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
in  diameter.  Over  this  boiler  (when  about  half 
full  of  water)  is  placed  a  hogshead,  or  cask,  the 
bottom  of  which  is  perforated  with  numerous  holes. 


232  THE    FARMYARD. 

about  an  inch  in  diameter,  so  that  the  steam  ma}' 
freely  pass  through  the  roots. 

16.  The  top  of  the  cask  is  usually  left  open, 
which  might  more  advantageously  be  covered  with 
a  thick  coarse  cloth.  The  cask  may  either  be  re- 
moved by  a  rope  and  pulley,  suspended  from  th& 
ceiling,  or  it  may  be  turned  over  when  the  roots 
are  sufficiently  steamed. 


TK8    END. 


I 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


TECHNICAL   TERMS 


Agriculturist,  a  fanner. 

Attraction,  the  power  by  which  bodies  tend  towards 

each  other. 
AfBnity,  an  agreement  between  bodies. 
Acidifying,  souring. 
Aqueous,  watery. 
Ammonia,  a  light  thin  alkali. 
Assimilation,  uniting  several  bodies  into  one  of  the 

same  nature. 
Alumina,  a  primitive  earth,  pertaining  to  alum. 
Arable,  fit  for  ploughing. 
Argillaceous,  clayey. 
Azote,  a  gas  destructive  to  animal  life,' 
Acrid,  sharp,  biting  to  the  taste. 
Agrostis,  bent  grass. 
Acetous,  sour. 


234  DICTIONARY  OF 

Ad  infinitum,  indefinitely,  without  end. 

Berkshire,  a  place  in  England. 
Biennial,  continuing  for  two  years  and  then  perish- 
ing. 
Bona  fide,  truly  in  good  faith. 

Chemistry,  the  science  that  discovers  the  nature 
and  properties  of  matter. 

Cohesion,  a  kind  of  attraction,  a  force  that  draws 
particles  of  matter  of  the  same  kind  together. 

Crystallization,  the  act  by  which  separate  parts 
unite  and  form  a  regular  solid  body. 

Caloric,  a  very  thin  subtle  fluid,  that  which  causes 
the  feeling  of  heat.  Heat  is  the  name  of  the  feel- 
ing produced  by  caloric.  Caloric  is  diffused  thro' 
every  thing. 

Combustion,  the  act  of  burning. 

Carbon,  one  of  the  simple  elements. 

Calcareous,  having  qualities  of  lime. 

Caustic,  corroding. 

Corrosive,  eating,  wearing  away. 

Calcined,  converted  into  a  powder. 

Cocoon,  a  ball  of  silk  in  which  the  silk- worm  windf 
itself. 

Cylinder,  a  long  circular  body,  a  roller. 

Costiveness,  tightness  of  bowels. 


TECHNICAL  TER^fS.  236 

Digestion,  preparing  food  in  the  stomach  for  nou- 
rishment. 
Drench,  a  portion  of  medicine. 

Electric,  from  electricity,  which  means  an  invisible 
subtle  fluid,  diffused  through  all  nature. 

Expansibility,  the  capacity  of  being  enlarged. 

Elasticity,  the  property  in  bodies  by  which  they  re- 
cover their  former  figure,  after  pressure  or  being 
pulled. 

Friction,  the  effect  of  rubbing  one  body  against  ano- 
ther. 
Fluidity,  capable  of  flowing,  a  liquid  state. 
Feldspar,  a  mineral  made  up  of  thin  scales.  ||^ 

Farina,  the  pollen,  the  fine  powder  on  the  plant. 

Geology,  the  study  of  rocks. 

Gravitation,  the  force  which  draws  bodies  together, 
or  to  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

Gases,  simple  substances  in  the  form  of  vapors. 

Galvanic  apparatus,  an  instrument  that  developes 
electricity  without  the  aid  of  friction  for  some 
chemical  effect.     It  produces  an  intense  heat. 

Gravity,  that  force  which  draws  bodies  to  the  cen- 
tre of  the  earth. 

Gelatine,  a  mixed  animal  substance,  dissolvable  in 
water. 


336  DICTIONARY  OF 

Hydrogen,  a  primary  part  of  water,  a  simple  ele- 
ment. 

Hygrometer,  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  mois- 
ture in  the  atmosphere. 

Hectolitre,  a  measure  containing  nearly  two  bush- 
els. 

Hydraulic  pressure,  water  pressure. 

Lime,  calcareous  earth. 

Liquids,  bodies  that  flow,  like  milk,  water,  &c. 

Leguminous,  consisting  of  pulse. 

Mineralogy,  the  study  of  ores,  minerals,  &c. 

Marl,  a  kind  of  earth  possessed  of  considerable 
lime,  vegetable  or  animal  matter. 

Mangnetic,  from  magnetism. 

Maganese,  a  metal  of  a  dusky  white. 

Magnesia,  one  of  the  primitive  earths. 

Mica,  a  mineral  made  up  of  thin  limber  scales,  ha- 
ving a  shining  surface. 

Marl,  a  mixture  of  lime  and  clay,  and  lime  and 
sand. 

Nitrogen,  an  original  element,  found  in  air  and  in 
many  other  substances. 

Oxidized,  rusted. 


TECHNICAL  TERMS.  237 

Oxygen,  one  of  the  elements  of  the  air — that  part 
of  the  air  which  supports  life. 

Plaster,  a  union  of  lime,  sulphuric  acid  and  water. 

Phosphorus,  a  combustable  substance,  of  a  yellow- 
ish color.     It  burns  very  readily. 

Pearlash,  refined  potash  obtained  from  the  ashes  of 
wood. 

Petrifaction,  soft  substances  changed  to  the  hard- 
ness of  a  stone. 

Piggery,  a  hog-pen. 

Quartz,  a  hard  flinty  mineral. 

Repulsion,  a  power  that  drives  particles  of  matter 

from  each  other. 
Radiating,  passing  through. 
Reflecting,  throwing  back  rays  of  light  and  heat. 
Residuum,  remainder. 

Stimulating,  exciting. 

Solids,  hard  bodies,  such  as  do  not  run  like  water. 

Safety-valve,  a  moving  valve  to  let  off*  steam  from 

the  boiler. 
Salt-petre,  a  substance  formed   by  uniting  potash 

and  nitre. 
Silicia,  one  of  the  primitive  earths.     It  is  hard  and 


238  DICTIONARY  OF 

flinty,  and    is  generally  found   in    the   state   of 

stone. 
Substratum,  under  layer. 
Silicious,  hard,  stony,  flinty. 
Saccharine,  having  the  qualities  of  sugar. 
Spatula,  a  flat  stick  for  spreading  or  stirring. 

Thermometer,  an  instrument  that  discovers  the  de- 
gree of  heat  that  may  be  in  any  thing. 

Vacuum,  an  empty  place  having  nothing  in  it,  not 
even  air. 


THE 

YOUNG  CITIZEN'S  MANUAL  : 

Being  a  Digest  of  the  Laws  of  the  State  of  New- 
York  and  of  the  United  States,  relating  to  Crinies 
and  their  Punishments,  and  of  such  other  parts 
of  the  l^ws  of  the  State  of  New-York  relating 
to  the  ordinary  business  of  social  life  as  are  most 
necessary  to  be  generally  known ;  with  explana- 
tory remarks.     To  which  is  prefixed, 

Ah     ESSAY    ON    TME    PRINCIPLES    OF    CIVIL  GOVERN- 
MENT. 

Designed  for  the  Instruction  of  Young  Persons  in  general,  and 
especially  for  the  use  of  Schools.     By  Alfred  Cankling. 

Published  at  the  Common  School  Depository, 
Albany.  This  work  is  included  in  the  *'  Useful 
School  Book"  series. 


■^^* 


^^. 


*  UMASS/AMHERST  * 


312066  0333  2781    9 


•:'  !:<>;::•::-;•":- r'^-r^vT  >?>::. 


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